Domestic dogs are the only population essential for persistence of rabies in Serengeti

Lembo, T., Hampson, K., Haydon, D. T., Craft, M., Dobson, A., Dushoff, J., ... & Mentzel, C. (2008). Exploring reservoir dynamics: a case study of rabies in the Serengeti ecosystem. Journal of Applied Ecology, 45(4), 1246-1257.

1. Knowledge of infection reservoir dynamics is critical for effective disease control, but identifying reservoirs of multi-host pathogens is challenging. Here, we synthesize several lines of evidence to investigate rabies reservoirs in complex carnivore communities of the Serengeti ecological region in northwest Tanzania, where the disease has been confirmed in 12 carnivore species.
2. Long-term monitoring data suggest that rabies persists in high-density domestic dog Canis familiaris populations (> 11 dogs/km²) and occurs less frequently in lower-density (< 5 dogs /km²) populations and only sporadically in wild carnivores.
3. Genetic data show that a single rabies virus variant belonging to the group of southern Africa canid-associated viruses (Africa 1b) circulates among a range of species, with no evidence of species-specific virus–host associations.
4. Within-species transmission was more frequently inferred from high-resolution epidemiological data than between-species transmission. Incidence patterns indicate that spill-over of rabies from domestic dog populations sometimes initiates short-lived chains of transmission in other carnivores.
5. Synthesis and applications. The balance of evidence suggests that the reservoir of rabies in the Serengeti ecosystem is a complex multi-host community where domestic dogs are the only population essential for persistence, although other carnivores contribute to the reservoir as non-maintenance populations. Control programmes that target domestic dog populations should therefore have the greatest impact on reducing the risk of infection in all other species including humans, livestock and endangered wildlife populations, but transmission in other species may increase the level of vaccination coverage in domestic dog populations necessary to eliminate rabies.

Pathogens in domestic dogs around National Park

Bronson, E., Emmons, L. H., Murray, S., Dubovi, E. J., & Deem, S. L. (2008). Serosurvey of pathogens in domestic dogs on the border of Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, Bolivia. Journal of zoo and wildlife medicine, 39(1), 28-36.

The threat of disease transmission from domestic animals to wildlife has become recognized as an increasing concern within the wildlife community in recent years. Domestic dogs pose a significant risk as reservoirs for infectious diseases, especially for wild canids. As part of a multifaceted ecologic study of maned wolves and other canids in the large, remote Noël Kempff Mercado National Park (NKMNP) in northeastern Bolivia, 40 domestic dogs in two villages and at two smaller settlements bordering the national park were sampled for exposure to canine diseases. High levels of exposure were found to canine distemper virus and canine parvovirus, both of which are known to cause mortality in maned wolves and other carnivores. Moderate to high levels of exposure were found to rabies virus, Ehrlichia canis, and Toxoplasma gondii, as well as significant levels of infection with Dirofilaria immitis. This study reports evidence of exposure to several diseases in the domestic dogs bordering the park. Contact between wild carnivores and dogs has been documented in the sampled villages, therefore dogs likely pose a substantial risk to the carnivores within and near NKMNP. Further measures should be undertaken to decrease the risk of spillover infection from domestic animals into the wild species of this region.

Stray dog bite menace

Dhiman, A. K., Mazta, S. R. & Thakur, A. (2016) Stray dog bite menace: an open invitation to rabies in Shimla city, Himachal Pradesh, India. Int J Community Med Public Health, 3 (6), 1683-1684. doi:10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20161651

Shimla is the capital city of Himachal Pradesh. Shimla acts as a hub for India's tourism sector. It is among the top 10 preferred entrepreneurial locations in India. City is grappling with the problem of stray dog menace. Stray dogs have established their habitats around the restaurants, hotels, hostels, hospitals and clubs here. There are around 3500-4000 stray dogs in Shimla City. In localities like the Mall Road, the Ridge, Jakhu and Summer Hill etc. the free roaming dogs are seen barking on the people.

Exposure of free-ranging maned wolves to infectious and parasitic disease agents

Deem, S. L., & Emmons, L. H. (2005). Exposure of free-ranging maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) to infectious and parasitic disease agents in the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, Bolivia. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 36(2), 192-197.

Maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) are neotropic mammals, listed as a CITES Appendix II species, with a distribution south of the Amazon forest from Bolivia, through northern Argentina and Paraguay and into eastern Brazil and northern Uruguay. Primary threats to the survival of free-ranging maned wolves include habitat loss, road kills, and shooting by farmers. An additional threat to the conservation of maned wolves is the risk of morbidity and mortality due to infectious and parasitic diseases. Captive maned wolves are susceptible to, and die from, common infectious diseases of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) including canine distemper virus (CDV), canine parvovirus (CPV), rabies virus, and canine adenovirus (CAV). Results from this study show that free-ranging maned wolves in a remote area of Bolivia have been exposed to multiple infectious and parasitic agents of domestic carnivores, including CAV, CDV, CPV, canine coronavirus, rabies virus, Leptospira interrogans spp., Toxoplasma gondii, and Dirofilaria immitis, and may be at increased risk for disease due to these agents.

Community knowledge, attitude and practice of rabies in Ethiopia

Serebe, S. G., Tadesse, K. A., Yizengaw, H. A., & Tamrat, S. M. (2014). Study on community knowledge, attitude and practice of rabies in and nearby Gondar town, North West Ethiopia. Journal of Public Health and Epidemiology,6(12), 429-435.

Rabies is one of the disastrous diseases for both animal and human beings. Questionaire based cross-sectional study was conducted in and nearby Gondar town from November 2013 to June 2014. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 139 respondents comprised of 96 from urban and 43 from peri-urban areas to assess knowledge, attitude and practice of community about rabies. The current study generally illustrated the presence of significant difference on knowledge and practice of the respondent from urban and peri-urban areas (P < 0.05). Although more than (96%) of the respondents were familiar with the disease, there is mis-perception about the cause and means of transmission of the disease. Starvation and thirst were mentioned by (49.6%) of the respondents as causes of the disease in dogs and 21.6% of them stated any type of contact (irrespective of the skin condition) with saliva of affected individual can transmit the diseases. The result also established that 124 (91.9%) of the respondents were aware that human and other different species of domestic animals can be affected by rabies. However, all respondents (100%) in peri-urban area perceived dog as the only source of infection for human being. Traditional medicine was stated as method of treatment in case of dog bite by 46% of the respondents whereas, 41.7% of respondent used post exposure vaccination. Only 35.8% of the respondent did vaccinate their dogs and level of low vaccination practice was higher in peri-urban area. Raising awareness about dog vaccination and improving access and affordability of the vaccine should be considered in control of the disease.

Costs analysis of a population level rabies control programme in India

Abbas SS, Kakkar M, Rogawski ET, on behalf of the Roadmap to Combat Zoonoses in India (RCZI) initiative (2014) Costs Analysis of a Population Level Rabies Control Programme in Tamil Nadu, India. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8(2): e2721. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002721

The study aimed to determine costs to the state government of implementing different interventions for controlling rabies among the entire human and animal populations of Tamil Nadu. This built upon an earlier assessment of Tamil Nadu's efforts to control rabies. Anti-rabies vaccines were made available at all health facilities. Costs were estimated for five different combinations of animal and human interventions using an activity-based costing approach from the provider perspective. Disease and population data were sourced from the state surveillance data, human census and livestock census. Program costs were extrapolated from official documents. All capital costs were depreciated to estimate annualized costs. All costs were inflated to 2012 Rupees. Sensitivity analysis was conducted across all major cost centres to assess their relative impact on program costs. It was found that the annual costs of providing Anti-rabies vaccine alone and in combination with Immunoglobulins was $0.7 million (Rs 36 million) and $2.2 million (Rs 119 million), respectively. For animal sector interventions, the annualised costs of rolling out surgical sterilisation-immunization, injectable immunization and oral immunizations were estimated to be $ 44 million (Rs 2,350 million), $23 million (Rs 1,230 million) and $ 11 million (Rs 590 million), respectively. Dog bite incidence, health systems coverage and cost of rabies biologicals were found to be important drivers of costs for human interventions. For the animal sector interventions, the size of dog catching team, dog population and vaccine costs were found to be driving the costs. Rabies control in Tamil Nadu seems a costly proposition the way it is currently structured. Policy makers in Tamil Nadu and other similar settings should consider the long-term financial sustainability before embarking upon a state or nation-wide rabies control programme.

Garbage dumps and rabies in Cameroon

Raymond, T. N., Roland, M. E., Francoise, K. F. M., Francis, Z., Livo, E. F., & Clovis, S. T. (2015). Do open garbage dumps play a role in canine rabies transmission in Biyem-Assi health district in Cameroon?. Infection Ecology & Epidemiology, 5.

Background: Rabies is a neglected enzootic disease which represents a serious public health problem. In Cameroon, efforts to prevent human deaths caused by rabies are often thwarted by the lack of community awareness. The community knowledge, as well as attitudes and perception on rabies, is therefore important for both prevention of human deaths and control in animals.

Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out to evaluate the level of community knowledge as well as the role of open garbage dumps (OGDs) in the epidemiology of human rabies. Overall 420 heads of household were interviewed in the Biyem-Assi health district of Yaoundé. OGDs were identified through a systematic check, and household wastes they contained were characterized.

Results: Although 66.9% of respondents have knowledge on stray dogs, only 35% of respondents knew the role of OGDs in the increase of stray dog population. Overall OGDs consisted of fermentable wastes. Nutrition places for stray dogs were wild garbage dumps (68.1%), markets (18.3%), and houses (13.6%). The feeding behavior of stray dogs correlated significantly with the human rabies transmission (χ²=154.12, df=4, p<0.05).

Conclusion: Most participants knew that rabies could be transmitted by a dog bite as well as the measures to be taken in this type of situation. Increased knowledge of respondents on rabies showed OGDs and stray dogs as significant risk factors for canine rabies in Biyem-Assi health district.

Methods to estimate abundance and rabies vaccination coverage in Bhutan

Tenzin, T., McKenzie, J. S., Vanderstichel, R., Rai, B. D., Rinzin, K., Tshering, Y., Pemd, R., Tsheringf, C., Dahala, N., Dukpaa, K., Dorjeed, S., Wangchukh, S., Jollyb, P.D., Morrisi, R. & Ward, M. P. (2015). Comparison of mark-resight methods to estimate abundance and rabies vaccination coverage of free-roaming dogs in two urban areas of south Bhutan. Preventive Veterinary Medicine. Preventive Veterinary Medicine

In Bhutan, Capture-Neuter-Vaccinate-Release (CNVR) programs have been implemented to manage the dog population and control rabies, but no detailed evaluation has been done to assess their coverage and impact. We compared estimates of the dog population using three analytical methods: Lincoln-Petersen index, the Chapman estimate, and the logit-normal mixed effects model, and a varying number of count periods at different times of the day to recommend a protocol for applying the mark-resight framework to estimate free-roaming dog population abundance. We assessed the coverage of the CNVR program by estimating the proportion of dogs that were ear-notched and visually scored the health and skin condition of free-roaming dogs in Gelephu and Phuentsholing towns in south Bhutan, bordering India, in September–October 2012.

The estimated free-roaming dog population in Gelephu using the Lincoln-Petersen index and Chapman estimates ranged from 612 to 672 and 614 to 671, respectively, while the logit-normal mixed effects model estimate based on the combined two count events was 641 (95% CI: 603-682). In Phuentsholing the Lincoln-Petersen index and Chapman estimates ranged from 525 to 583 and 524 to 582, respectively, while the logit-normal mixed effects model estimate based on the combined four count events was 555 (95% CI: 526-587). The total number of dogs counted was significantly associated with the time of day (AM versus PM; P = 0.007), with a 17% improvement in dog sightings during the morning counting events. We recommend to conduct a morning marking followed by one count event the next morning and estimate population size by applying the Lincoln-Peterson corrected Chapman method or conduct two morning count events and apply the logit-normal mixed model to estimate population size.

The estimated proportion of vaccinated free-roaming dogs was 56% (95% CI: 52–61%) and 58% (95% CI: 53–62%) in Gelephu and Phuentsholing, respectively. Given coverage in many neighbourhoods was below the recommended threshold of 70%, we recommend conducting an annual “mass dog vaccination only” campaign in southern Bhutan to create an immune buffer in this high rabies-risk area. The male-to-female dog ratio was 1.34:1 in Gelephu and 1.27:1 in Pheuntsholing.

Population size estimates using mark-resight surveys has provided useful baseline data for understanding the population dynamics of dogs at the study sites. Mark–resight surveys provide useful information for designing and managing the logistics of dog vaccination or CNVR programs, assessing vaccination coverage, and for evaluating the impact of neutering programs on the size and structure of dog populations over time.

Need to close the gap between research and policy to rabies control in India

Abbas, S. S., & Kakkar, M. 2014. Rabies control in India: a need to close the gap between research and policy. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. BLT.14.140723

...
What are the rabies control solutions for India? Researchers and policy-makers need to jointly promote evidence-based policy-making. The landscape of rabies control is complex; with actors from multiple sectors– including animal welfare, public health, veterinary medicine and civil administration – with different perspectives and expectations of a rabies control programme. In such an environment simple intervention strategies are not likely to meet the needs of all stakeholders. Instead, an approach that recognizes the interdependence of – while seeking to improve – human, animal and environmental health, may bring multiple perspectives together. More epidemiological studies and implementation research should be conducted with a wider set of actors. For us, the recognition of the complexity of rabies control is the first step to developing more effective, acceptable and sustainable policy solutions.

Dog bite profile in urban India

Ghosh, A., & Pal, R. (2014) PROFILE OF DOG BITE CASES IN AN URBAN AREA OF KOLKATA, INDIA. National Journal of Community Medicine, 5 (3)

Background: There is no nationally representative community based data or organized surveillance system to get the actual magnitude of Ra- bies infection in India. 

Objectives: To estimate the extent of problem & the epidemiological characteristics of animal bite cases in urban field practice area of KPC Medical College and to assess the risk correlates regarding animal bites. 

Methods: The present community based cross sectional study was con- ducted in the urban field practice area of KPC Medical College; Kolkata during the period from 15th May to 15th June 2013 using classification of exposures as per guidelines lay down by WHO. 

Results: In the present study of the reported animal bite cases affected all the ages and both genders; the incidence of animal bites decreased with increasing age. Majority of the victims were males except in elderly population; children were more vulnerable. Two thirds of animal bite victims were from socioeconomic class IV and V. Dogs were the most common biting animal followed by Cats. Maximum number of study participants reported to health centre within 24 to 48 hours and very few cases within 24 hours after bite. Late reported cases, especially after 5 days, constituted by younger children or illiterate elderly people were forcefully brought to the hospital by their family members or caregivers. 

Conclusions: Dog bite is common in males and children less than ten years among our study population with more of third degree bites though health seeking behaviour is far from expectation.

Mass dog poisoning operation in Addis Ababa

Yilma D.A. 2013. Mass dog poisoning operation in Addis Ababa can have severe repercussions on vulture populations. Vulture News 64: 74–76

In Addis Ababa until April 2013 at least 12 000 stray dogs were poisoned, in relation to the potential and growing concern of the risk of rabies to society, and dumped unburied at the city dump.

Dog ecology and demography in Machakos District, Kenya

Kitala, P., McDermott, J., Kyule, M., Gathuma, J., Perry, B., & Wandeler, A. (2001). Dog ecology and demography information to support the planning of rabies control in Machakos District, Kenya. Acta Tropica, 78(3), 217-230.

A study of 150 dog-owning households from six randomly selected sublocations was conducted in Machakos District, Kenya. Initially, all households were visited to collect information on dog ecology and demography based on WHO guidelines and to collect serum for rabies antibody detection. A second visit was made 1 year later, to obtain follow-up data on births, deaths, dog movements and other events since the first visit. Dog ownership was common, with a range of 53–81% (mean=63%) of households owning dogs in the six sublocations. Dog density for the five more rural sublocations ranged from 6 to 21 dogs  km^-2 and for the peri-urban sublocation was 110 dogs  km^-2. The dog population was estimated to be growing at 9% p.a. (95% C.I. 4–14%). This growth was a function of very high fecundity (1.3 females per female per year) more than compensating for high mortality, particularly among females. Life expectancy from birth was 3.5 years for males and 2.4 years for females. Half the dogs at any one time were less than 1 year of age. All dogs, by design of the study, were owned. Of these, 69% were never restricted and roamed freely to forage for food and mix with other dogs. Only a small proportion of dogs (5%) were fed commercial dog food. Most households reported observing dogs scavenging their garbage, including: their own dogs (81%), their neighbours’ dogs (75%) and unknown dogs (45%). Only 29% of dogs at least 3 months of age were reported to be vaccinated against rabies. The proportion vaccinated varied widely between sublocations (5–68%); 48% of dogs reportedly vaccinated had detectable antibodies, 31% at or above levels considered to indicate seroconversion. The proportion of dogs with detectable antibodies declined according to the time since last vaccination (55% if vaccinated ≤1 year, 47% ≤2 years and 36% >2 years); 20% of dogs reported not to have been vaccinated had detectable rabies antibody. Compared to other dog populations in rural eastern and southern Africa, Machakos District has a high density of dogs. The Machakos dog population is growing, highly dynamic, poorly supervised and inadequately vaccinated against rabies. The main implication for rabies control is that adequate vaccination coverage is unlikely to be achieved, even under optimal delivery, using the current strategy of annual vaccination of dogs older than 3 months.

Dog ecology and demography in Antananarivo

Ratsitorahina, M., Rasambainarivo, J. H., Raharimanana, S., Rakotonandrasana, H., Andriamiarisoa, M. P., Rakalomanana, F. A., & Richard, V. (2009). Dog ecology and demography in Antananarivo, 2007. BMC veterinary research, 5(1), 21.

Background

Rabies is a widespread disease in African domestic dogs and a serious public health problem in developing countries. Canine rabies became established in Africa during the 20th century, coinciding with ecologic changes that favored its emergence in canids.

This paper reports the results of a cross-sectional study of dog ecology in the Antananarivo urban community in Madagascar.

A questionnaire survey of 1541 households was conducted in Antananarivo from October 2007 to January 2008. The study addressed both owned and unowned dogs. Various aspects of dog ecology were determined, including size of dog population, relationship between dogs and humans, rabies vaccination.

Results

Dog ownership was common, with 79.6 to 94.1% (mean 88.9%) of households in the six arrondissements owning dogs. The mean owned dog to person ratio was 1 dog per 4.5 persons and differed between arrondissements (administrative districts), with ratios of 1:6.0 in the first arrondissement, 1:3.2 persons in the 2nd, 1:4.8 in the 3rd, 1:5.2 in the 4th, 1:5.6 in the 5th and 1:4.4 in the 6th arrondissement. Overall, there were more male dogs (61.3%) and the male/female sex ratio was estimated to be 1.52; however, mature females were more likely than males to be unowned (OR: 1.93, CI 95%; 1.39<OR<2.69). Most (79.1%) owned dogs were never restricted and roamed freely to forage for food and mix with other dogs. Only a small proportion of dogs (11.7%) were fed with commercial dog food. Only 7.2% of owned dogs had certificates confirming vaccination against rabies. The proportion of vaccinated dogs varied widely between arrondissements (3.3% to 17.5%).

Conclusion

Antananarivo has a higher density of dogs than many other urban areas in Africa. The dog population is unrestricted and inadequately vaccinated against rabies. This analysis of the dog population will enable targeted planning of rabies control efforts.

Dog meat consumption and rabies in Nigeria

Ekanem, E. E., Eyong, K. I., Philip-Ephraim, E. E., Eyong, M. E., Adams, E. B., & Asindi, A. A. (2014). Stray dog trade fuelled by dog meat consumption as a risk factor for rabies infection in Calabar, southern Nigeria. African Health Sciences, 13(4), 1170-1173.

Background: Rabies is a preventable zoonosis with the highest case fatality of any disease in the world. In the developing world, it is transmitted mainly by dog bites. In parts of southern Nigeria, dog meat is a delicacy.
Objective: To highlight trade in stray dogs as a major risk factor for rabies in animals and humans in south-south Nigeria.
Method: Patients admitted into the University of Calabar Teaching Hospital (UCTH) with a diagnosis of rabies between July and October 2012 were analysed for risk factors, post exposure prophylaxis (PEP), health seeking behaviour and outcome. Focused group interview were also conducted among traders/ handlers of stray dogs.
Results: Ten cases of rabies in subjects aged 3 to 52 years were recorded in these five months period. Eight of the cases were male and apparently got infected directly or indirectly through the trade in stray dogs for human consumption. None had proper PEP and all patients died.
Conclusion: Stray dog trade, fuelled by eating of dog meat, is a risk factor for human and animal rabies in Calabar, southern Nigeria. Culling of stray dogs, control of stray dogs’ trade and public enlightenment on PEP is recommended.

Odeh, L. E., Umoh, J. U., & Dzikwi, A. A. (2013). Assessment of Risk of Possible Exposure to Rabies among Processors and Consumers of Dog Meat in Zaria and Kafanchan, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Global journal of health science, 6(1), p142.

Canine rabies is endemic in Nigeria. Some of the dogs slaughtered for human consumption may be infected with rabies virus, thus exposing handlers of raw dog meat to the disease since the virus may be present in the nerves in the meat. A cross-sectional study was designed and a structured questionnaire was designed and administered to a convenience sample of 160 processors and consumers (100 from Zaria and 60 from Kafanchan), by face to face interview at the slaughter sites or dog meat sale points. The questionnaire sought information on demographic characteristics of the respondents, rabies knowledge, attitude and actions the respondents would take if exposure occurs. Associations between demographic variables and categorized knowledge, attitude or practice scores were assessed using X² analysis. The relationship between non-categorized scores was assessed using multiple regression analysis. Also, 154 brain samples from slaughtered dogs (74 from Zaria and 80 from Kafanchan) were checked for rabies antigen using direct fluorescent antibody test. Of the 160 respondents, 49 (30.6%) were involved in the slaughtering and sale of dog meat while 111(69.4%) were involved in handling and consumption of processed dog meat. Only 123(76.9%) knew that dogs are common source of rabies in Nigeria and 105(65.6%) knew that rabies affect humans. Also 110(68.8%) did not have adequate knowledge of the clinical signs of rabies. The level of knowledge, having positive attitudes and knowing acceptable practices were directly proportional to the level of education. Respondents from Kafanchan had higher level of knowledge and more positive attitudes towards rabies than those from Zaria. There were significant correlations between knowledge and attitude scores (r=0.49) and between knowledge and practice scores (r=0.43) at p<0.001. Rabies antigen was detected in the brain of 6 (3.9%) of the slaughtered dogs. The findings indicate that processors and consumers of dog meat are deficient in the knowledge of rabies. There is therefore a need for educational programmes targeted at this high risk group to increase their level of knowledge and reduce the risk of exposure.

Has the management of stray dog populations and rabies control improved since 2008?

Miranda, E. (2014). Has the management of stray dog populations and rabies control improved since 2008?. In Proceedings of the Third OIE Global Conference on Animal Welfare, Implementing the OIE standards-addressing regional expectations. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 6-8 November 2012. (pp. 41-43). OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health).

Stray and feral dogs are serious threats to public health, safety and welfare. The prevention of zoonotic diseases, notably rabies, depends, inter alia, on effective control of stray dog populations, which should be considered as a priority. There are several approaches to stray dog control, including capture and impounding, and culling. However, to eliminate rabies, stray dog control alone has never had a significant impact on dog population densities and has never been effective as a single method in controlling or eliminating canine rabies. It is, therefore, not recommended as a rabies control strategy on its own. This paper sets out key considerations for humane dog population control as a support to an effective programme for rabies prevention and control.

Rabies antivirus in dogs in SW Nigeria

Oluwayelu, D. O., Adebiyi, A. I., & Ohore, O. G. (2015). A survey of rabies virus antibodies in confined, hunting and roaming dogs in Ogun and Oyo States, Southwestern Nigeria. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease, 5(1), 17-21.

Objective

To screen for rabies virus (RABV) antibodies in apparently healthy confined, hunting and roaming dogs by a community-based approach.

Methods

Sera from 230 (80 confined, 92 hunting and 58 roaming) dogs in some urban and peri-urban communities in Ogun and Oyo states, Southwestern Nigeria were screened for RABV antibodies using the indirect ELISA method.

Results

Analysis of administered questionnaires showed that of 80 confined dog owners, 37 were aware of anti-rabies vaccination (i.e. they were informed) while 17 were negligent and 26 uninformed. Of the 230 sera tested, only 13 (5.7%) from vaccinated confined dogs in Oyo state were positive (i.e. had optimal RABV antibody titres) (mean 0.54, 95% CI: 0.42–0.67) while all confined dog sera in Ogun state were negative. Eleven (12.0%) and 14 (24.1%) of the hunting and roaming dogs respectively had sub-optimal RABV antibody titres while the rest were negative.

Conclusions

Evidently, these groups of dogs are a totally unprotected and susceptible dog population that can serve as potential reservoirs of RABV in the study area. Responsible pet ownership, vaccination of hunting and roaming dogs, and community-based active rabies surveillance are therefore advocated in Nigeria.

Key features and animal welfare implications of rabies control

Aréchiga, C. N., Karunaratna, D., & Aguilar, S. A. (2014). Control of canine rabies in developing countries: key features and animal welfare implications. Revue scientifique et technique (International Office of Epizootics), 33(1), 311.

Over 90% of human deaths from rabies worldwide are caused by dog bites. Mass vaccination, along with the effective control of dog populations, has been used successfully in industrialised countries to control this disease. A lower success rate in developing countries is due to a number of factors, including vaccination campaigns that do not cover a sufficient number of animals or reach all communities, and a wide biodiversity that increases the number of reservoirs of the rabies virus. Educational programmes are needed, which focus on the commitment involved when acquiring a domestic animal, stating clearly what is required to provide it with a good quality of life. New technologies developed in the industrialised world will not always be successful in less developed countries. Approaches must be adapted to the particular conditions in each country, taking cultural and socio-economic issues into account. Authorities must promote research on dog population dynamics, the development of non-invasive methods to control dog populations and the most efficient, stable and low-cost options for vaccination. Under the One Health model, it is hoped that dog-transmitted human rabies will be accorded high priority as a zoonosis by human health authorities, international authorities and donor agencies to support ambitious eradication goals, particularly those being set in South-East Asia. Well-designed and adequately resourced vaccination programmes, based on the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) guidelines, will have significant animal welfare benefits, due to the availability of improved vaccines (in terms of efficacy, duration of immunity, ease of administration and lower cost), advances in dog population management and the more widespread implementation of the OIE Guidelines on Stray Dog Control. Animal welfare benefits include not only the elimination of pain and suffering caused by the clinical disease itself, but also the avoidance of the indirect impact of inhumane culling when methods are used that have not been approved by the OIE.

First trials of oral vaccination against rabies in Morocco

Darkaoui, S., Boué, F., Demerson, J. M., Fassi Fihri, O., Yahia, K. I. S., & Cliquet, F. (2014). First trials of oral vaccination with rabies SAG2 dog baits in Morocco. Clinical and Experimental Vaccine Research, 3(2), 220-226.

Purpose

Canine rabies is a serious health problem in Morocco and about 22 human deaths are reported yearly. Following the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations, Moroccan authorities evaluated oral rabies vaccine baits specially designed for dogs.

Materials and Methods

The study was performed in Tiflet area. The vaccine strain was SAG2, a modified live oral rabies vaccine strain. Each bait contained an aluminium/PVC capsule filled with a liquid. Two kinds of baits were used: placebo baits containing methylene blue as a topical marker and vaccine baits containing vaccine suspension. The study was performed according to recommended WHO strategies, i.e., door to door model (DDDM), hand-out and wildlife immunization model (WIM). The DDDM was performed in the rural area of Tiflet on 60 owned dogs. The hand-out strategy was tested on 15 stray dogs. The WIM was performed on 4 transects lines near Tiflet slaughterhouse and near the weekly traditional market location.

Results

Using the DDDM, 100% of owned dogs were attracted by the baits and 77% ate the bait. Using the hand-out model, 100% of dogs showed interest in baits and 46.7% took the baits. Using the WIM in stray dogs, up to 73% of baits disappeared and 68% of the capsules containing the SAG2 vaccine were found pierced, depending on the sites of distribution.

Conclusion

This pilot study showed that baits have a good palatability and that oral vaccination of both owned and stray dogs is feasible with baits specifically developed for dogs and with adapted strategy of distribution.

Dog meat and rabies

Ajoke, E., Solomon, A., & Ikhide, E. (2014). The role of dog trading and slaughter for meat in rabies epidemiology with special reference to Nigeria-a review. Journal of Experimental Biology and Agricultural Sciences, 2(2), 130-136.

The aim of this review was to define the risk factors associated with dog trading and slaughtering for food in the transmission of rabies to human health in Nigeria. The review also examined the factors that increase the risk of transmission of the rabies virus and epidemiology in humans and preventive measures that may be taken. Emphasis was also laid on the potential role that the butchers play in rabies transmission and their susceptibility to rabies through contact with infectious meat samples and materials. Dog meat is gradually becoming a delicacy in many parts of Nigeria. It is eaten for various reasons including medicinal values, source of protein and ritual rites. Stray and apparently healthy dogs are transported together to the slaughter-houses for processing. Rabies virus have been confirmed in apparently, healthy dogs to be slaughtered showing that butchers are at risk, especially in Nigeria, where the butchers neither wear protective gears nor vaccinated against rabies. It is recommended that regular and mass vaccination of butchers and dogs should be carried out to ensure effective control and eradication of rabies. In conclusion, dog trading, slaughtering and consumption might play a major role in the epidemiology of rabies from dogs to humans in Nigeria.

Eliminating Rabies in Tanzania?

Bardosh, K., Sambo, M., Sikana, L., Hampson, K., & Welburn, S. C. (2014). Eliminating Rabies in Tanzania? Local Understandings and Responses to Mass Dog Vaccination in Kilombero and Ulanga Districts. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 8(6), e2935.

Background

With increased global attention to neglected diseases, there has been a resurgence of interest in eliminating rabies from developing countries through mass dog vaccination. Tanzania recently embarked on an ambitious programme to repeatedly vaccinate dogs in 28 districts. To understand community perceptions and responses to this programme, we conducted an anthropological study exploring the relationships between dogs, society, geography and project implementation in the districts of Kilombero and Ulanga, Southern Tanzania.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Over three months in 2012, we combined the use of focus groups, semi-structured interviews, a household questionnaire and a population-based survey. Willingness to participate in vaccination was mediated by fear of rabies, high medical treatment costs and the threat of dog culling, as well as broader notions of social responsibility. However, differences between town, rural and (agro-) pastoralist populations in livelihood patterns and dog ownership impacted coverage in ways that were not well incorporated into project planning. Coverage in six selected villages was estimated at 25%, well below official estimates. A variety of problems with campaign mobilisation, timing, the location of central points, equipment and staff, and project organisation created barriers to community compliance. Resource-limitations and institutional norms limited the ability for district staff to adapt implementation strategies.

Conclusions and Significance

In the shadows of resource and institutional limitations in the veterinary sector in Africa, top-down interventions for neglected zoonotic diseases likes rabies need to more explicitly engage with project organisation, capacity and community participation. Greater attention to navigating local realities in planning and implementation is essential to ensuring that rabies, and other neglected diseases, are controlled sustainably.

Author Summary

Mass vaccination of dogs is the most effective strategy to eliminate dog-mediated human rabies from developing countries. In 2009, a large-scale elimination demonstration project was funded and coordinated by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) in three southern countries, including the United Republic of Tanzania. This paper explores community perceptions and responses to this programme in the districts of Kilombero and Ulanga, Southern Tanzania. The study was based on focus groups and interviews in 16 villages as well as a household questionnaire (n = 113), a population-based survey (n = 6,157 households) and key informant interviews (n = 24). The study showed that fear of rabies, the threat of dog culling and broader ideas of community responsibility drove compliance. However differences in local livelihoods shaped dog ownership patterns and the distribution of dogs in ways that were not explicitly addressed by project strategies. A survey in six villages found that only 25% of dogs had been vaccinated in 2011. We discuss the operational constraints and problems that lowered coverage as viewed by different actors at the district and village-level. A more explicit engagement with project organisation, capacity and community involvement are needed to address this low coverage.