ISFM guidelines on population management and welfare of unowned domestic cats

Sparkes, A. H., Bessant, C., Cope, K., Ellis, S. L., Finka, L., Halls, V., Hiestand, K., Horsford, K., Laurence, C., MacFarlaine, I., Neville, P.F., Stavisky, J. & Yeates, J. (2013). ISFM guidelines on population management and welfare of unowned domestic cats (Felis catus). Journal of feline medicine and surgery,15(9), 811-817.

Guidelines rationale: Cats are among the most commonly kept domestic pets, and coexist with humans in a variety of different circumstances. Cats are sentient beings and, as such, humans have a responsibility for cat welfare where humans and cats coexist. Because cats reproduce efficiently, measures to control populations are frequently needed, but these should be based on ethical and humane approaches.

Framework: These consensus guidelines from the International Society of Feline Medicine’s Welfare Advisory Panel provide a framework for the approach to welfare and population control measures, primarily among unowned cats and those going through a homing programme.

A review of feral cat control

Robertson, S. A. (2008). A review of feral cat control. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 10(4), 366-375.

Animal overpopulation including feral cats is an important global problem. There are many stakeholders involved in the feral cat debate over ‘what to do about the problem’, including those who consider them a nuisance, the public at risk from zoonotic disease, people who are concerned about the welfare of feral cats, those concerned with wildlife impacts, and the cats themselves. How best to control this population is controversial and has ranged from culling, relocation, and more recently ‘trap neuter return’ (TNR) methods. Data support the success of TNR in reducing cat populations, but to have a large impact it will have to be adopted on a far greater scale than it is currently practised. Non-surgical contraception is a realistic future goal. Because the feral cat problem was created by humans, concerted educational efforts on responsible pet ownership and the intrinsic value of animals is an integral part of a solution.

Mandatory spay ordinance as the solution to San Francisco dog problem

Lang, D. (2013). A Mandatory Spay/Neuter Ordinance in San Francisco: The Solution to San Francisco’s Other Homeless Problem. Master's Capstone Projects.Paper 6. University of San Francisco

The dog overpopulation in San Francisco has been straining San Francisco’s Department of Animal Care & Control’s already limited resources with the increase in dog impoundments and animal cruelty cases, particularly ones involving dogs. At least 33 local governments around the United States have implemented mandatory spay/neuter laws for all dogs as a way to curb the companion animal overpopulation. San Francisco should adopt a similar mandatory spay/neuter law, in which all dogs over the age of six months, with certain exceptions, must be spayed or neutered. This will relieve the strain on Animal Care & Control, will save the City money, and will decrease pain, suffering, and even death among San Francisco’s dog population.

Humans have a responsibility to care for companion animals because we domesticated them and allow them to breed in a world where there are not enough homes for them. So humans should take action to decease breeding, especially accidental breeding, so as to decrease the population of unwanted dogs. This human action should be in the form of implementing a mandatory spay/neuter law, so the majority of dogs will be unable to reproduce and so that breeders are restricted to one litter per year to minimize their contribution to the companion animal overpopulation. Not only is spaying and neutering crucial to reducing the population of unwanted dogs, but it also has many health, behavioral, and societal benefits. Spaying and neutering will increase the health of dogs by reducing their chances of developing certain cancers; it will increase their life span; and it will increase public safety and public health byreducing aggression, making them less likely to bite, and reducing the number of stray dogs wandering the streets.

Even though most veterinarians, most members of the animal shelter community, and most animal welfare/rights activists agree that spaying/neutering is vital to decreasing the companion animal overpopulation, they disagree on whether spaying/neutering should be mandatory or simply encouraged. Proponents of mandatory spay/neuter laws argue that they will save local governments money, produce more revenue, and improve public safety and public health. On the other hand, opponents argue that low-cost spay/neuter programs are more effective at decreasing the companion animal overpopulation, mandatory spay/neuter laws punish poor people and will result in more companion animals being abandoned in shelters, they discourage people from taking their animals to the vet or to the animal shelter for fear of being reported to authorities for having an unaltered animal, they punish responsible companion animal guardians and breeders, they waste public resources, and they are difficult to enforce.

An analysis of shelter data from two municipalities—Clark County, Nevada, and Los Angeles County, California—that have implemented mandatory spay/neuter laws reveals that recent dog intake and euthanasia rates are the lowest they have been in the past two decades, indicating that these laws are successful at reducing the unwanted dog population. In 2005, San Francisco’s Commission of Animal Control and Welfare considered implementing a mandatory spay/neuter ordinance for all dogs, but it never went past Commission meetings. However, in 2006, San Francisco implemented a mandatory spay/neuter law for Pit Bulls, which resulted in a decrease in Pit Bull euthanasia rates. The success of this law can be partly attributed to the free spay/neuter services for Pit Bulls offered by the San Francisco Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SF SPCA). Other free spay/neuter services for any breed of dog are also offered in various locations in San Francisco, which would help ensure the success of a mandatory spay/neuter ordinance for all dogs.

San Francisco should implement a mandatory spay/neuter ordinance that requires that all dogs six months or older must be spayed or neutered, with exemptions for dogs who are too old or sick to undergo the spay/neuter surgery and dogs whose health would be threatened by the spay/neuter surgery. In addition, guardians who do not want to spay or neuter their dogs must obtain an intact dog license or a breeding license. Animal Care & Control can enforce the mandatory spay/neuter law by modifying its dog licensing system to assign different colored tags for different licenses—regular dog licenses, intake dog license, and breeding license.

Furthermore, breeders must show proof that they have a breeding license by putting the license number on their advertisements or sales receipts, and they must be restricted to one litter per year and the number of unaltered animals they are allowed to have should be limited, as well, so as to not further contribute to the companion animal overpopulation problem. And finally, penalties for violations of the mandatory spay/neuter law should be civil, rather than criminal.

Cats, Toxoplasma and public health

Dabritz, H. A., & Conrad, P. A. (2010). Cats and Toxoplasma: implications for public health. Zoonoses and Public Health, 57(1), 34-52.

Cats are popular as pets worldwide because they are easy to care for and provide companionship that enriches the lives of human beings. Little attention has been focused on their potential to contaminate the environment with zoonotic pathogens. One such pathogen, the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii, rarely causes clinical manifestations in cats or immunocompetent humans; however, it can have serious adverse effects on human foetuses and immunocompromised patients. Many human infections are believed to be acquired from eating undercooked or raw meat, such as pork and lamb (Tenter et al., 2000; Dubey et al., 2005). However, the prevalence of T. gondii infection in human populations that do not consume meat or eat it well-cooked suggests that the acquisition of infection from the environment, via oocysts in soil, water or on uncooked vegetables, is also important (Rawal, 1959; Roghmann et al., 1999; Chacin-Bonilla et al., 2001). In the past 20 years, two changes occurred that significantly increased the size of the cat population in the USA. Pet cat ownership grew from 50 million to 90 million animals, and animal welfare activists created feeding stations for abandoned and free-roaming cats. As many cat owners allow their cats to deposit faeces outside and cats maintained in colonies always defecate outside, ample opportunity exists for T. gondii oocysts to enter the environment and be transmitted to humans. Prevention efforts should focus on educating cat owners about the importance of collecting cat faeces in litter boxes, spaying owned cats to reduce overpopulation, reducing the numbers of feral cats and promoting rigorous hand hygiene after gardening or soil contact.

Owners' attitude contribution to stray cat overpopulation

Finkler, H., & Terkel, J. (2012). The contribution of cat owners’ attitudes and behaviours to the free-roaming cat overpopulation in Tel Aviv, Israel. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 104(1), 125-135.


The attitudes and behaviours of cat owners in regard to treatment of cats may have a cumulative effect on the food availability, reproduction, density and welfare of the free-roaming cat population and thus also on the extent of cat overpopulation. Understanding this is thus a vital step in the a priori planning of cat management programs on any scale, as well as in developing public education programs on this issue. Although recent years have seen an accumulation of knowledge in regard to cat owners’ attitudes and behaviours, the findings vary among countries and locations and in Israel this has never been investigated systematically. Using a questionnaire provided to cat owners in veterinary clinics, this study aimed at identifying those attitudes and behaviours that may be contributing to cat overpopulation in Tel Aviv, Israel, and at exploring the socio-economic factors that influence this problem. The findings show that the influential factors can be predicted from the cat owners’ socio-economic status, mainly education and income, as well as gender and age. A consistency in those cat owner behaviours that contribute to cat overpopulation was also uncovered, revealing a sub-population of individuals who persist in the undesirable behaviours. Finally, a strong relationship between attitude and consequent behaviour was demonstrated, indicating the importance of education and targeted publicity as a means to influence attitudes and thereby change behaviours in this respect. We propose several measures by which to reduce the current extent of cat owners’ contribution to the cat overpopulation: discouraging unwanted owner behaviours such as abandonment of their cats and allowing them to breed; promoting awareness of the neutering option among cat caretakers; and increasing pre-adoption neutering rates in shelters. Regional and national laws promoting responsible pet ownership need to be enacted. By improving the current level of knowledge and awareness among cat owners regarding cat overpopulation issues, and encouraging a more responsible attitude, cat owners’ bond with their cats could be strengthened, as well as their bond with and contribution to their environment

Impact of introduced cats on island biodiversity

Hervías, S., Oppel, S., Medina, F. M., Pipa, T., Díez, A., Ramos, J. A., Ruiz de Ybáñez, R. & Nogales, M. (2014). Assessing the impact of introduced cats on island biodiversity by combining dietary and movement analysis. Journal of Zoology, 292: 39-47

Populations of feral (not owned by humans) and domestic cats Felis catus coexist in most inhabited islands, and they have similar impacts on native species. Feral cats are generally believed to vary their diet according to prey availability; however, no previous studies of diet have tested this hypothesis on insular ecosystems with a limited range of available prey. Because domestic cats kill prey independently of hunger, the spatial extent of their impact on wildlife will be influenced by home-range size. In this study, we combined dietary information with cat movements to assess the impacts of feral and domestic cats on island biodiversity. We quantified the diet of cats from scat samples collected across one year and tested whether diet varies by season. The abundance of main prey categories was also estimated to document seasonal variation in prey availability for cats. Finally, we tracked domestic cats by global positioning system units in all four seasons to examine whether home-range patterns varied seasonally. The diet of cats constituted three prey groups (rodents, birds and invertebrates), and the seasonal variation in consumption of each taxon matched the seasonal variation in prey availability, thus supporting the generalist behaviour of cats on oceanic islands. Roaming behaviour varied among individuals and across seasons, but could not be explained by availability of prey. Unconfined cats had larger home-ranges than confined cats, but most domestic cats strayed <1 km from home. Thus, confinement of domestic cats might reduce the spatial extent of cat impact on native prey populations on oceanic islands.

Unwanted kittens and misinformed owners

Welsh, C. P., Gruffydd-Jones, T. J., Roberts, M. A., & Murray, J. K. (2013). Poor owner knowledge of feline reproduction contributes to the high proportion of accidental litters born to UK pet cats. Veterinary Record, vetrec-2013.

‘Accidental’ litters contribute to population growth and the number of unwanted animals entering animal welfare organisations. Assessing the problem's extent and determining risk factors enables identification of education targets. Data were obtained from 715 cat-owning households in a cross-sectional telephone survey. Demographic and lifestyle factors were assessed for their association with accidental litters and with owner knowledge of cat reproduction. A total of 128 litters were reported from 552 female cats, and the proportion of accidental litters reported by owners was 80 per cent. Multivariable analysis identified that respondents were more likely to report an accidental litter of kittens if they believed a female cat should have a litter prior to being neutered, if they had more than one cat and if they rented rather than owned their home. Misconceptions relating to cat reproduction were common. The opinion that the youngest age a cat could get pregnant was five months of age (or older) was held by 83.5 per cent of cat-owning respondents, with over a quarter (26.4 per cent; 174/659) believing a queen is unable to conceive until at least a year of age. Almost half the respondents (49.0 per cent; 334/682) believed a female cat should have a litter before being neutered or were not sure; 38.8 per cent (264/681) thought that un-neutered, related cats would not mate or were not sure. This study suggests that improving cat-owner knowledge of the reproductive capacity of cats is likely to have a significant impact on the numbers of accidental litters born.

Biology and impact of domestic cat in the Pacific

Duffy, D. C., & Capece, P. (2012). Biology and Impacts of Pacific Island Invasive Species. 7. The Domestic Cat (Felis catus) 1. Pacific Science, 66(2), 173-212.

This article reviews the biology, ecological effects, and management of the domestic cat (Felis catus) in the Pacific basin. The cat is one of the most controversial invasive species in the Pacific region because of its complex relations with humans. At one extreme, well-fed domestic house pets are allowed outdoors where they may hunt native animals; at the other, unsocialized feral cats have replaced native predators as apex predators or occupy a new niche on oceanic islands, where they have devastated native faunas. In the middle are stray cats that are still socialized around humans. Feral and stray cats can be reservoirs of diseases that infect free-roaming domestic cats, humans, and wildlife. Given these problems, the best response would be to keep domestic cats indoors, restrict cat breeding, and remove feral populations. However, most Pacific basin societies have failed to reach a consensus on the cat problem, so solutions are ad hoc, often lacking in any scientific basis, and reflect our conflicting views. Compromise management might best fall into three broad classes: (1) eradication of cats should be confined to islands and other areas of high native biodiversity where reintroduction can be prevented; (2) in a landscape of low or moderate biological value, efforts should be made to educate the public to reduce the impact of their cats on remaining wildlife, while excluding cats from “islands” of elevated biodiversity values or human sensitivity; (3) in drastically simplified urban ecosystems, management perhaps should occur only in response to local complaints.

Public prefer keeping dogs in kennels than euthanasia

Siettou, C., Fraser, I., & Fraser, R. (2013). A Choice Experiment Analysis of the Management of the Stray Dog Population in the UK. Agricultural Economics Society>87th Annual Conference, April 8-10, 2013, Warwick University, Coventry, UK

In this paper we present the results of a pilot study investigating the public’s view on the pet overpopulation problem. The Choice Experiment aims to understand the UK public’s awareness of the issue, its views and its willingness to participate and pay for a reduction in the rate of animals being “put to sleep”. Our preliminary results indicate that the public are willing to pay to keep healthy stray dogs alive for longer in Local Authority kennels beyond the current seven day statutory period.

Companion animal management programs

Rowan, A. N., & Williams, J. (1987). The success of companion animal management programs: A review. Anthrozoos: A Multidisciplinary Journal of The Interactions of People & Animals, 1(2), 110-122.

In the early 1970s, a surge of interest in and attention to pet overpopulation led to a revamping of animal control programs around the country and to the promotion of an approach known as LES (legislation, education, sterilization). Concern about pet overpopulation and the killing of healthy animals in shelters continues to be high, but little is known about the effectiveness of LES over the past few years. The present paper reviews the available data and concludes that the pet overpopulation problem has improved in the last ten to fifteen years with only 10% of the national dog and cat population being euthanized in shelters today as compared to 20% in 1973. The data are insufficient to determine which of legislation, education, or enforcement has been the most important factor. Questions are, however, raised about the effectiveness of a sterilization program in the absence of good animal control.

Community turtle conservation in Costa Rica

Govan, H. (1998). Community turtle conservation at Rio Oro on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica. Marine Turtle Newsletter, 80, 10-11.

In June 1996, ADECORO started community-based management of the beach which involved both the participation of community members in controlling movements of their animals, and the removal of feral dogs which was carried out in conjunction with local authorities.

	Total Predated	% Predated
1994	417	15%
1996	292	9%

A marked reduction can be seen in predation levels subsequent to the commencement of this initiative. It is almost certain that the reduction of dog predation is the result of a combination of the activities of the beach patrols and general increasing awareness in the community. Increased public awareness is likely to have contributed to the decrease in the activities of human egg collectors. The number of nests collected by humans fell from 344(12%) in 1994, to 122 (4%) in 1996

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Use of collars and microchips for cats

Lord, L.K, B. Griffin, M.R. Slater, J.K. Levy. (2010) Evaluation of collars and microchips for visual and permanent identification of pet cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 237 (4), 387-394

Objective—To determine the percentage of pet cats still wearing collars and having functional microchips 6 months after application.

Design—Randomized controlled clinical trial.

Animals—538 client-owned cats.

Procedures—Cats were randomly assigned to wear 1 of 3 types of collars: plastic buckle, breakaway plastic buckle safety, and elastic stretch safety. Each cat was fitted with the assigned collar, and a microchip was inserted SC between the scapulae. Owners completed questionnaires about their experiences and expectations of collars at enrollment and at the conclusion of the study.

Results—391 of the 538 (72.7%) cats successfully wore their collars for the entire 6-month study period. Owners' initial expectations of the cats' tolerance of the collar and the number of times the collar was reapplied on the cats' necks were the most important factors predicting success. Type of collar likely influenced how often collars needed to be reapplied. Eighteen (3.3%) cats caught a forelimb in their collar or caught their collar on an object or in their mouth. Of the 478 microchips that were scanned at the conclusion of the study, 477 (99.8%) were functional.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Most cats successfully wore their collars. Because even house cats can become lost, veterinarians should recommend that all cats wear identification collars since they are the most obvious means of identifying an owned pet. For some cats, collars may frequently come off and become lost; therefore, microchips are an important form of backup identification. Owners should select a collar that their cat will tolerate and should check it often to ensure a proper fit.

Impact of neutering programs on animal population dynamics at animal shelters

White, S. C., Jefferson, E., & Levy, J. K. (2010). Impact of publicly sponsored neutering programs on animal population dynamics at animal shelters: The New Hampshire and Austin experiences. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 13(3), 191-212.

This study found that government-funded surgical sterilization of companion animals has been widely promoted as a means of decreasing shelter intake and euthanasia. However, little information is available about the true impact of these programs on community and shelter nonhuman animal population dynamics. This study estimated the impact of the Animal Population Control Program in New Hampshire by comparing shelter intake and euthanasia data before and after the onset of the neutering initiative. Regression analysis demonstrated a significant decrease in cat intake and euthanasia during the years after program onset, a trend that appears to begin prior to the program's initiation; however, there was no decrease in dog intake or euthanasia. This study also estimated the impact of the Austin-based EmanciPET FreeSpay/Neuter Program by comparing shelter intake and euthanasia data from the targetedprogram areas versus nonprogram areas within the city. Regression analysis demonstrated a significantly lower rate of increase for dog and cat intake and euthanasia in the program areas. Prospective studies should determine the effectiveness and affordability of different models for funding and delivering neutering services.

Perception of threatened species management on urban beaches

Maguire, G. S., Rimmer, J. M., & Weston, M. A. (2013). Stakeholder Perceptions of Threatened Species and Their Management on Urban Beaches.Animals, 3(4), 1002-1020.

Simple Summary: Coastal urbanisation brings humans into contact with beach-dwelling wildlife. Where wildlife are disturbance prone, active management is required to promote coexistence between beach-goers and endangered wildlife. Coexistence relies on people adopting wildlife-sensitive behaviours. This study examines factors, which influence people’s awareness and perceptions of threatened species management in southern Australia, using Hooded Plover Thinornis rubricollis management as a model. The inconvenience experienced by beach goers in regard to plover management was low. Awareness and support for plover conservation were high. Frequency of beach use, whether a person was a dog walker, and awareness of the species and its plight, influenced perceptions.


Abstract: We surveyed 579 recreationists regarding management of the threatened, beach-dwelling Hooded Plover Thinornis rubricollis. We postulated that: (1) lower awareness of the species and higher ‘inconvenience’ of management would engender less favourable perceptions of conservation and management; and (2) that frequency of beach use and dog ownership may mediate perceptions and levels of awareness and inconvenience. Overall, inconvenience was low while awareness and support for plover conservation were high.
Education and awareness strategies were considered less effective than regulations; exclusion and regulations were considered less desirable than on-ground protective measures. Awareness, frequency of beach use and dog walking did not influence the perceived effectiveness of different managements. More frequent beach users had greater awareness of the species and their plight but reported greater inconvenience associated with management. Respondents with high awareness rated the severity of human-related threats higher; low awareness was associated with more inconvenience associated with on-ground protection, and exclusion and regulations. Dog walkers reported more inconvenience associated with exclusions and regulations than non-dog walkers. Dog walkers who used the beach infrequently rated threats significantly higher than frequent beach users. Conservation and education strategies could usefully be tailored to beach users’ level of use and pet ownership.

Impacts of feral and free-ranging cats on bird species of conservation concern

Winter, L., & Wallace, G. E. (2006). Impacts of feral and free-ranging cats on bird species of conservation concern. Other Publications in Wildlife Management, 28. University of Nebraska.

This report reviews cat predation impacts on rare birds in the states of New York, New Jersey, Florida, California, and Hawaii, reviews government-authorized programs and ordinances affecting feral and freeranging cats and their management, and makes recommendations on better ways to manage cat overpopulation problems.

RECOMENDATIONS FOR CONSERVATIONISTS

Conservation groups and individuals have an important role to play in helping to educate the public on responsible pet ownership and in generating support for predator management projects. Here are some tips that can help protect birds from free-roaming cats in your community.
• Keep your own cats indoors, and walk it outside on a harness and leash, or in an outdoor enclosure. Encourage others to keep their cats indoors.
• Spay or neuter your cat at an early age before it can reproduce.
• Do not feed stray cats and never abandon a cat you can no longer care for. Instead, find a good home for your cat or take it to an animal shelter or humane society. For a shelter nearest you, see the National Shelter Directory at http://www. aspca.org.
• Work for passage of local cat ordinances that prohibit cats from roaming off their owner’s property.
• Conduct a Cats Indoors! campaign in your community. For free downloadable materials and more information, see http://www.abcbirds.org/cats.
• Support efforts of public land managers to humanely trap and remove cats from habitat managed for wildlife.
• Conduct a media campaign in your community using print and radio Public Service Announcements (PSAs) found at http://www.abcbirds.org/cats.
• Sponsor a children’s poster competition for National Keep Your Cat Indoors Day, held on the second Saturday in May. For more information see http://www.abcbirds.org/cats/NKYCID.htm.
• Print an article or PSA in your organization’s newsletter.
• Ask your state wildlife agency to print an article in their magazine and/or produce a Web page on the issue for their Web site.
• Ask your state wildlife agency to adopt the Cats Indoors! campaign and distribute brochures and other materials to the public through their visitor centers, educational programs, and displays.

Domestic dogs in Wildlife habitats

Sime, C. A. 1999. Domestic Dogs in Wildlife Habitats. Pages 8.1-8.17 in G. Joslin and H. Youmans, coordinators. Effects of recreation on Rocky Mountain wildlife: A Review for Montana. Committee on Effects of Recreation on Wildlife, Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society. 307pp.

It is difficult to segregate human demographic trends from trends in rural development and outdoor recreational participation in settings like the West where they appear to be interrelated. One extension of human recreation in wildlife habitats is the effect of disturbance, harassment, displacement, or direct mortality of wildlife attributable to domestic dogs that accompany recreationists. At some level, domestic dogs still maintain instincts to hunt and/or chase. Given the appropriate stimulus, those instincts can be triggered in many different settings. Even if the chase instinct is not triggered, dog presence in and of itself has been shown to disrupt many wildlife species. Authors of many wildlife disturbance studies concluded that dogs with people, dogs on-leash, or loose dogs provoked the most pronounced disturbance reactions from their study animals. During winter, concerns are primarily related to human activity on ungulate winter ranges. Dogs extend the zone of human influence when off-leash. Many ungulate species demonstrated more pronounced reactions to unanticipated disturbances, as a dog off-leash would be until within very close range. In addition, dogs can force movement by ungulates (avoidance or evasion during pursuit), which is in direct conflict with overwinter survival strategies which promote energy conservation. During summer, concerns are primarily related to the birth and rearing of young for all wildlife species. Dogs are noted predators for various wildlife species in all seasons. Domestic dogs can potentially introduce diseases (distemper, parvovirus, and rabies) and transport parasites into wildlife habitats. While dog impacts to wildlife likely occur at the individual scale, the results may still have important implications for wildlife populations. For most wildlife species, if a “red flag” is raised by pedestrian-based recreational disturbance, there could also be problems associated with the presence of domestic dogs. Managers may consider the following when evaluating recreational impacts of dogs in wildlife habitats: species biology, reproductive potential, abundance, density, distribution, degree of habitat specificity or reliance on certain habitat components, and predisposition and sensitivity to disturbance by other agents. This information is intended to increase awareness among natural resource professionals and the public about the potential implications of uncontrolled domestic dogs in wildlife habitats and to encourage responsible outdoor recreation ethics.

Interactions among dogs, people and wildlife

Bekoff, M., & Meaney, C. A. (1997). Interactions among dogs, people, and the environment in Boulder, Colorado: A case study. Anthrozoos: A Multidisciplinary. Journal of The Interactions of People & Animals, 10(1), 23-31.

From September 1995 to April 1996 we studied interactions among dogs, people, and the environment in Boulder, Colorado. Data on behavioral disturbances by off-leash dogs who were accompanied by a person were collected with respect to dog-dog and dog-human interactions, dog-wildlife encounters, dogs trampling vegetation, and dogs entering and disturbing bodies of water. A questionnaire also was administered. Behavioral data showed that off-leash dogs generally did not travel far off trail, that when they did it was for short periods of time, and that they rarely were observed to chase other dogs, disturb people, chase wildlife, destroy vegetation, or enter bodies of water. Results from analyses of the questionnaire (skewed toward non-dog owners) showed that dog owners and non-dog owners agreed that people were more disruptive to the environment than dogs and that unruly people were more problematic than unruly dogs. We conclude that the well-being and interests of dogs should not summarily and dismissively be compromised when dogs and people attempt to share limited space that can be used by all parties for recreational purposes. Indeed, a higher percentage of people reported that the quality of dogs' experience of the outdoors would be compromised more than their own enjoyment if dogs could not walk off-leash in areas where this is currently permitted. The methods used and the results from this case study can serve as a model for other locations in which dogs and people compete for limited spatial resources.

Managing impacts of cats in peri-urban reserves

McCarthy, S. (2005). Managing impacts of domestic cats in peri-urban reserves. In Proceedings of the Fourteenth National Conference on Urban Animal Management in Australia.(Australian Veterinary Committee: Canberra.) Available at http://www. uam. net. au/Publications/

Impacts of domestic cats in peri-urban reserves may occur directly through predation, indirectly through disease transmission, by competition with native species and by supplementation of the feral cat population. Predation, in particular, has been the subject of increasing community concern and scientific research in the last decade which has resulted in increased pressure on local government to develop domestic cat control strategies. This literature review discusses domestic cat impacts in peri-urban reserves and management strategies for their control.

Nonsurgical fertility control for managing free-roaming dog

Massei, G., & Miller, L. A. (2013). Nonsurgical fertility control for managing free-roaming dog populations: A review of products and criteria for field applications.Theriogenology.

About 75% of dogs worldwide are free to roam and reproduce, thus creating locally overabundant populations. Problems caused by roaming dogs include diseases transmitted to livestock and humans, predation on livestock, attacks on humans, road traffic accidents, and nuisance behavior. Nonsurgical fertility control is increasingly advocated as more cost-effective than surgical sterilization to manage dog populations and their impact. The aims of this review were to 1) analyze trends in numbers of scientific publications on nonsurgical fertility control for dogs; 2) illustrate the spectrum of fertility inhibitors available for dogs; 3) examine how differences between confined and free-roaming dogs might affect the choice of fertility inhibitors to be used in dog population management; and 4) provide a framework of criteria to guide decisions regarding the use of nonsurgical fertility control for dog population management. The results showed that the 117 articles published between 1982 and 2011 focussed on long-term hormonal contraceptives, such as gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists, immunocontraceptives, and male chemical sterilants. The number of articles published biennially increased from one to five papers produced in the early 1980s to 10 to 20 in the past decade. Differences between confined dogs and free-roaming dogs include reproduction and survival as well as social expectations regarding the duration of infertility, the costs of sterilization, and the responsibilities for meeting these costs. These differences are likely to dictate which fertility inhibitors will be used for confined or free-roaming dogs. The criteria regarding the use of fertility control for dog population management, presented as a decision tree, covered social acceptance, animal welfare, effectiveness, legal compliance, feasibility, and sustainability. The review concluded that the main challenges for the future are evaluating the feasibility, effectiveness, sustainability, and effects of mass nonsurgical sterilization campaigns on dog population size and impact as well as integrating nonsurgical fertility control with disease vaccination and public education programs.

Teaching the impact of introduced predators

Calver, M. C., King, D. R., & Short, J. (1998). Ecological blunders and conservation: the impact of introduced foxes and cats on Australian native fauna. Journal of Biological Education, 32(1), 67-72.

Many vertebrate extinctions followed the introduction of the exotic predators, the fox and the cat, to Australia. While experiments have confirmed the case against the fox as a serious threat to endangered species, there are no direct experimental links showing recovery of prey populations following culling of cat numbers. This, coupled with the emotional attachment of many people to cats, has led to some opposition to their control, especially when limitations on the freedom of pets to roam are proposed. The introduced predator case is a stimulating example for teaching aspects of the emerging discipline of conservation biology and highlights the interplay of bioethics, public opinion, and biological principles in conservation decision-making. Suggested classroom exercises allow students to compare and contrast experimental and non-experimental approaches to assessing predator impact, consider ethical issues in controlling predators for conservation, and reach their own conclusions on the impact of cats on local wildlife.