nteractions between domestic and wild carnivores around the greater Serengeti ecosystem

Craft, M. E., Vial, F., Miguel, E., Cleaveland, S., Ferdinands, A., & Packer, C. (2016). Interactions between domestic and wild carnivores around the greater Serengeti ecosystem. Animal Conservation.

The domestic and wild carnivore interface is complex, yet understudied. Interactions between carnivore species have important implications for direct interference competition, cross-species transmission of shared pathogens and conservation threats to wild carnivores. However, carnivore intraguild interactions are hard to quantify. In this study, we asked 512 villagers residing around a conservation area in the Serengeti Ecosystem, Tanzania, to report on the presence of wild carnivores in their village, the number of domestic dogs Canis familiaris and cats Felis catus in their household and interactions between domestic and wild carnivores. Wild carnivores are abundant near households surrounding the Serengeti National Park, villagers have many free-ranging domestic dogs (and would like to have more) and direct and indirect contacts between wild and domestic carnivores are common. Large carnivores, such as spotted hyenas and leopards, often killed or wounded domestic dogs. Small carnivores, such as mongoose, bat-eared fox, serval and wildcat, are locally abundant and frequently interact with domestic dogs. We demonstrate that interspecific carnivore behavior, human culture and local and regional geography play a complex role in domestic and wild carnivore interaction risk around conservation areas. Through the use of household surveys, we were able to efficiently obtain data on a wide scope of carnivore interactions over a large area, which may provide a direction for future targeted and in-depth research to reduce interspecific conflict. Improving the health and husbandry of domestic animals and reducing the unintentional feeding of wild carnivores could reduce dog–wildlife interactions and the potential for pathogen transmission at the domestic–wild animal interface.

Domestic dogs are the only population essential for persistence of rabies in Serengeti

Lembo, T., Hampson, K., Haydon, D. T., Craft, M., Dobson, A., Dushoff, J., ... & Mentzel, C. (2008). Exploring reservoir dynamics: a case study of rabies in the Serengeti ecosystem. Journal of Applied Ecology, 45(4), 1246-1257.

1. Knowledge of infection reservoir dynamics is critical for effective disease control, but identifying reservoirs of multi-host pathogens is challenging. Here, we synthesize several lines of evidence to investigate rabies reservoirs in complex carnivore communities of the Serengeti ecological region in northwest Tanzania, where the disease has been confirmed in 12 carnivore species.
2. Long-term monitoring data suggest that rabies persists in high-density domestic dog Canis familiaris populations (> 11 dogs/km²) and occurs less frequently in lower-density (< 5 dogs /km²) populations and only sporadically in wild carnivores.
3. Genetic data show that a single rabies virus variant belonging to the group of southern Africa canid-associated viruses (Africa 1b) circulates among a range of species, with no evidence of species-specific virus–host associations.
4. Within-species transmission was more frequently inferred from high-resolution epidemiological data than between-species transmission. Incidence patterns indicate that spill-over of rabies from domestic dog populations sometimes initiates short-lived chains of transmission in other carnivores.
5. Synthesis and applications. The balance of evidence suggests that the reservoir of rabies in the Serengeti ecosystem is a complex multi-host community where domestic dogs are the only population essential for persistence, although other carnivores contribute to the reservoir as non-maintenance populations. Control programmes that target domestic dog populations should therefore have the greatest impact on reducing the risk of infection in all other species including humans, livestock and endangered wildlife populations, but transmission in other species may increase the level of vaccination coverage in domestic dog populations necessary to eliminate rabies.

Vulture declines and increased dog scavenging

Ogada, D. L., Torchin, M. E., Kinnaird, M. F., & Ezenwa, V. O. (2012). Effects of vulture declines on facultative scavengers and potential implications for mammalian disease transmission. Conservation Biology, 26(3), 453-460.

Vultures (Accipitridae and Cathartidae) are the only known obligate scavengers. They feed on rotting carcasses and are the most threatened avian functional group in the world. Possible effects of vulture declines include longer persistence of carcasses and increasing abundance of and contact between facultative scavengers at these carcasses. These changes could increase rates of transmission of infectious diseases, with carcasses serving as hubs of infection. To evaluate these possibilities, we conducted a series of observations and experimental tests of the effects of vulture extirpation on decomposition rates of livestock carcasses and mammalian scavengers in Kenya. We examined whether the absence of vultures changed carcass decomposition time, number of mammalian scavengers visiting carcasses, time spent by mammals at carcasses, and potential for disease transmission at carcasses (measured by changes in intraspecific contact rates). In the absence of vultures, mean carcass decomposition rates nearly tripled. Furthermore, the mean number of mammals at carcasses increased 3-fold (from 1.5 to 4.4 individuals/carcass), and the average time spent by mammals at carcasses increased almost 3-fold (from 55 min to 143 min). There was a nearly 3-fold increase in the mean number of contacts between mammalian scavengers at carcasses without vultures. These results highlight the role of vultures in carcass decomposition and level of contact among mammalian scavengers. In combination, our findings lead us to hypothesize that changes in vulture abundance may affect patterns of disease transmission among mammalian carnivores.

________________

Los buitres (Accipitridae y Cathartidae) son los únicos carroñeros obligados que se conocen. Se alimentan de cadáveres en descomposición y son el grupo funcional de aves más amenazado del mundo. Los efectos posibles de las declinaciones de buitres incluyen una mayor persistencia de cadáveres y el incremento de la abundancia de y contacto entre carroñeros facultativos en esos cadáveres. Estos cambios podrían incrementar las tasas de transmisión de enfermedades infecciosas, con los cadáveres funcionando como focos de infección. Para evaluar estas posibilidades, realizamos una serie de observaciones y pruebas experimentales de los efectos de la extirpación de buitres sobre las tasas de descomposición de cadáveres de ganado y mamíferos carroñeros en Kenia. Examinamos sí la ausencia de buitres cambiaba el tiempo de descomposición de cadáveres, el número de mamíferos carroñeros visitando los cadáveres, el tiempo utilizado por mamíferos en los cadáveres y la potencial transmisión de enfermedades en los cadáveres (medida por cambios en las tasas de contacto interespecífico). En ausencia de buitres, las tasas medias de descomposición de cadáveres incrementaron 3 veces (de 1.5 a 4.4 individuos/cadáver), y el tiempo promedio invertido por mamíferos en los cadáveres incrementó casi 3 veces (de 55 min a 143 min). Hubo un aumento de casi tres veces en el número promedio de contactos entre mamíferos carroñeros en cadáveres sin buitres. Estos resultados resaltan el papel de los buitres en la descomposición de cadáveres y del nivel de contacto entre mamíferos carroñeros. En combinación, nuestros resultados nos llevaron a plantear la hipótesis de que cambios en la abundancia de buitre pueden afectar los patrones de transmisión de enfermedades entre mamíferos carnívoros.

Distemper outbreak and its effect on African wild dog conservation

van de Bildt, M., Kuiken, T., Visee, A. M., Lema, S., Fitzjohn, A. R., & Osterhaus, A. (2002). Distemper outbreak and its effect on African wild dog conservation. Emerging Infectious Diseases (Print),8(2), 211-213.


In December 2000, an infectious disease spread through a captive breeding group of African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in Tanzania, killing 49 of 52 animals within 2 months. The causative agent was identified as Canine distemper virus (CDV) by means of histologic examination, virus isolation, reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction analysis, and nucleotide sequencing. This report emphasizes the importance of adequate protection against infectious diseases for the successful outcome of captive breeding programs of endangered species.

Fatal canine distemper infection in a pack of African wild dogs in the Serengeti

Goller, K. V., Fyumagwa, R. D., Nikolin, V., East, M. L., Kilewo, M., Speck, S., ... & Wibbelt, G. (2010). Fatal canine distemper infection in a pack of African wild dogs in the Serengeti ecosystem, Tanzania. Veterinary microbiology, 146(3), 245-252.

In 2007, disease related mortality occurred in one African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) pack close to the north-eastern boundary of the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Histopathological examination of tissues from six animals revealed that the main pathologic changes comprised interstitial pneumonia and suppurative to necrotizing bronchopneumonia. Respiratory epithelial cells contained numerous eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies and multiple syncytial cells were found throughout the parenchymal tissue, both reacting clearly positive with antibodies against canine distemper virus (CDV) antigen. Phylogenetic analysis based on a 388 nucleotide (nt) fragment of the CDV phosphoprotein (P) gene revealed that the pack was infected with a CDV variant most closely related to Tanzanian variants, including those obtained in 1994 during a CDV epidemic in the Serengeti National Park and from captive African wild dogs in the Mkomazi Game Reserve in 2000. Phylogenetic analysis of a 335-nt fragment of the fusion (F) gene confirmed that the pack in 2007 was infected with a variant most closely related to one variant from 1994 during the epidemic in the Serengeti National Park from which a comparable fragment is available. Screening of tissue samples for concurrent infections revealed evidence of canine parvovirus, Streptococcus equi subsp. ruminatorum and Hepatozoon sp. No evidence of infection with Babesia sp. or rabies virus was found. Possible implications of concurrent infections are discussed. This is the first molecular characterisation of CDV in free-ranging African wild dogs and only the third confirmed case of fatal CDV infection in a free-ranging pack.

Epidemiology, pathology, and genetic analysis of a canine distemper epidemic in Namibia

Gowtage-Sequeira, S., Banyard, A. C., Barrett, T., Buczkowski, H., Funk, S. M., & Cleaveland, S. (2009). Epidemiology, pathology, and genetic analysis of a canine distemper epidemic in Namibia. Journal of wildlife diseases, 45(4), 1008-1020.

Severe population declines have resulted from the spillover of canine distemper virus (CDV) into susceptible wildlife, with both domestic and wild canids being involved in the maintenance and transmission of the virus. This study (March 2001 to October 2003) collated case data, serologic, pathologic, and molecular data to describe the spillover of CDV from domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) to black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) during an epidemic on the Namibian coast. Antibody prevalence in jackals peaked at 74.1%, and the clinical signs and histopathologic observations closely resembled those observed in domestic dog cases. Viral RNA was isolated from the brain of a domestic dog from the outbreak area. Sequence data from the phosphoprotein (P) gene and the hemagglutinin (H) genes were used for phylogenetic analyses. The P gene sequence from the domestic dog shared 98% identity with the sequence data available for other CDV isolates of African carnivores. For the H gene, the two sequences available from the outbreak that decimated the lion population in Tanzania in 1994 were the closest match with the Namibian sample, being 94% identical across 1,122 base pairs (bp). Phylogenetic analyses based on this region clustered the Namibian sample with the CDV that is within the morbilliviruses. This is the first description of an epidemic involving black-backed jackals in Namibia, demonstrating that this species has the capacity for rapid and large-scale dissemination of CDV. This work highlights the threat posed to endangered wildlife in Namibia by the spillover of CDV from domestic dog populations. Very few sequence data are currently available for CDV isolates from African carnivores, and this work provides the first sequence data from a Namibian CDV isolate.

Genetics of CDV in East African carnivores

Carpenter, M. A., Appel, M. J., Roelke-Parker, M. E., Munson, L., Hofer, H., East, M., & O'Brien, S. J. (1998). Genetic characterization of canine distemper virus in Serengeti carnivores. Veterinary immunology and immunopathology, 65(2), 259-266.

The lion (Panthera leo) population in the Serengeti ecosystem was recently afflicted by a fatal epidemic involving neurological disease, encephalitis and pneumonia. The cause was identified as canine distemper virus (CDV). Several other species in the Serengeti were also affected. This report presents CDV H and P gene sequences isolated from Serengeti lions (Panthera leo), spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis) and domestic dog (Canis familiaris). Sequence analyses demonstrated that the four Serengeti species carry closely related CDV isolates which are genetically distinct from other CDV isolates from various species and locations. The results are consistent with the conclusions that: (1) a particularly virulent strain of CDV emerged among Serengeti carnivores within the last few years; (2) that strain has recognizable shared-derived (synapomorphic) genetic differences in both H and P genes when compared to CDV from other parts of the world; and (3) that the CDV strain has frequently crossed host species among Serengeti carnivores.

Evidence for domestic dogs as a source of canine distemper virus infection for Serengeti wildlife

Cleaveland, S., Appel, M. G. J., Chalmers, W. S. K., Chillingworth, C., Kaare, M., & Dye, C. (2000). Serological and demographic evidence for domestic dogs as a source of canine distemper virus infection for Serengeti wildlife. Veterinary microbiology, 72(3), 217-227.

Following an epidemic of canine distemper virus (CDV) in Serengeti lions in 1994, the role of domestic dogs in the epidemiology of the disease was investigated by serological and demographic analyses. From 1992 to 1994, data were collected from two domestic dog populations bordering the Serengeti National Park. Several lines of evidence indicated that patterns of CDV infection differed significantly between higher-density dog populations of Serengeti District to the west of the park and lower-density populations of Ngorongoro District to the south-east: (a) CDV age-seroprevalence patterns differed significantly between years in Ngorongoro District populations but not in Serengeti District populations; (b) CDV seropositive pups (<12 months of age) were detected in Ngorongoro District only in 1994, whereas a proportion of pups in Serengeti District were seropositive in each year of the study; (c) in Ngorongoro District, the proportion of deaths attributed to disease was significantly higher in 1994 than in 1993, whereas in Serengeti District, there was no significant difference in disease-related mortality between years; (d) in Ngorongoro District, significantly more CDV seronegative dogs than seropositive dogs died in 1994, whereas there was no difference in survival of CDV seropositives and seronegatives between years in Serengeti District. We concluded that, between 1992 and 1994, CDV persisted in higher-density dog populations of Serengeti District, but occurred only sporadically in lower-density Ngorongoro District populations. Data from Ngorongoro District are consistent with exposure of dogs to CDV in 1991 and 1994, but not in 1992 and 1993. These findings suggest that higher-density domestic dog populations to the west of the Serengeti National Park were a more likely source of CDV infection for wildlife during 1994 than lower-density pastoralist dogs to the south and east of the park.

Canine distemper in endangered Ethiopian wolves

Gordon, C. H., Banyard, A. C., Hussein, A., Laurenson, M. K., Malcolm, J. R., Marino, J., ... & Sillero-Zubiri, C. (2015). Canine distemper in endangered Ethiopian wolves. Emerging infectious diseases, 21(5), 824.

The Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) is the world’s rarest canid; ≈500 wolves remain. The largest population is found within the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) in southeastern Ethiopia, where conservation efforts have demonstrated the negative effect of rabies virus on wolf populations. We describe previously unreported infections with canine distemper virus (CDV) among these wolves during 2005–2006 and 2010. Death rates ranged from 43% to 68% in affected subpopulations and were higher for subadult than adult wolves (83%–87% vs. 34%–39%). The 2010 CDV outbreak started 20 months after a rabies outbreak, before the population had fully recovered, and led to the eradication of several focal packs in BMNP’s Web Valley. The combined effect of rabies and CDV increases the chance of pack extinction, exacerbating the typically slow recovery of wolf populations, and represents a key extinction threat to populations of this highly endangered carnivore.

Adult and subadult Ethiopian wolf population in Sanetti Plateau, Ethiopia, 2002–2013. Dots indicate wolf population estimates at different time points; arrows indicate canine distemper virus outbreaks in this study.

Density of adult and subadult Ethiopian wolf population in Web Valley, Ethiopia, 2002–2013. Dots indicate wolf population estimates at different time points; arrows indicate known rabies epizootics and canine distemper virus outbreaks in this study. Of 7 wolf packs in Web Valley, 4 went extinct after the 2010 canine distemper virus outbreak; in 2011, two new packs formed in the area.

Community knowledge, attitude and practice of rabies in Ethiopia

Serebe, S. G., Tadesse, K. A., Yizengaw, H. A., & Tamrat, S. M. (2014). Study on community knowledge, attitude and practice of rabies in and nearby Gondar town, North West Ethiopia. Journal of Public Health and Epidemiology,6(12), 429-435.

Rabies is one of the disastrous diseases for both animal and human beings. Questionaire based cross-sectional study was conducted in and nearby Gondar town from November 2013 to June 2014. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 139 respondents comprised of 96 from urban and 43 from peri-urban areas to assess knowledge, attitude and practice of community about rabies. The current study generally illustrated the presence of significant difference on knowledge and practice of the respondent from urban and peri-urban areas (P < 0.05). Although more than (96%) of the respondents were familiar with the disease, there is mis-perception about the cause and means of transmission of the disease. Starvation and thirst were mentioned by (49.6%) of the respondents as causes of the disease in dogs and 21.6% of them stated any type of contact (irrespective of the skin condition) with saliva of affected individual can transmit the diseases. The result also established that 124 (91.9%) of the respondents were aware that human and other different species of domestic animals can be affected by rabies. However, all respondents (100%) in peri-urban area perceived dog as the only source of infection for human being. Traditional medicine was stated as method of treatment in case of dog bite by 46% of the respondents whereas, 41.7% of respondent used post exposure vaccination. Only 35.8% of the respondent did vaccinate their dogs and level of low vaccination practice was higher in peri-urban area. Raising awareness about dog vaccination and improving access and affordability of the vaccine should be considered in control of the disease.

Garbage dumps and rabies in Cameroon

Raymond, T. N., Roland, M. E., Francoise, K. F. M., Francis, Z., Livo, E. F., & Clovis, S. T. (2015). Do open garbage dumps play a role in canine rabies transmission in Biyem-Assi health district in Cameroon?. Infection Ecology & Epidemiology, 5.

Background: Rabies is a neglected enzootic disease which represents a serious public health problem. In Cameroon, efforts to prevent human deaths caused by rabies are often thwarted by the lack of community awareness. The community knowledge, as well as attitudes and perception on rabies, is therefore important for both prevention of human deaths and control in animals.

Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out to evaluate the level of community knowledge as well as the role of open garbage dumps (OGDs) in the epidemiology of human rabies. Overall 420 heads of household were interviewed in the Biyem-Assi health district of Yaoundé. OGDs were identified through a systematic check, and household wastes they contained were characterized.

Results: Although 66.9% of respondents have knowledge on stray dogs, only 35% of respondents knew the role of OGDs in the increase of stray dog population. Overall OGDs consisted of fermentable wastes. Nutrition places for stray dogs were wild garbage dumps (68.1%), markets (18.3%), and houses (13.6%). The feeding behavior of stray dogs correlated significantly with the human rabies transmission (χ²=154.12, df=4, p<0.05).

Conclusion: Most participants knew that rabies could be transmitted by a dog bite as well as the measures to be taken in this type of situation. Increased knowledge of respondents on rabies showed OGDs and stray dogs as significant risk factors for canine rabies in Biyem-Assi health district.

Gastro intestinal parasites in Stray dogs in Ethiopia

Gugsa, G., Hailu, T., Kalayou, S., Abebe, N., & Hagos, Y. (2015). Prevalence and Worm Burdens of Gastro-Intestinal Parasites in Stray Dogs of Mekelle City, Tigray, Ethiopia. American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 15 (1): 08-15

Stray dogs (Canis familiaris) are ownerless native dogs of mostly non descriptive nature which roam
freely without human supervision and gastrointestinal parasites are common pathogens in these dogs and some are reservoirs of parasitic infections of humans. A study on gastrointestinal parasites of free roaming dogs was conducted from November 2009 to April 2010 with the objective of determining the prevalence and intensity of GI parasites of stray dogs and documenting the helminth biodiversity of stray dogs so as to provide baseline information on GI parasites infection of stray dogs on a local scale in Mekelle city. A total of 11 stray dogs were captured and euthanized. Necropsy finding was done and the contents of their alimentary canal were inspected. Statistical tests were performed using SPSS 15.0 windows version. The necropsy finding revealed that 72.72% free roaming dogs were found to be harborcestodes, nematodes and mixed infections. Five species of cestodes and two species of nematodes were found to be adult worms in their respective hosts. The highest parasite burdens (72.72%) were found for S. lupi and D. caninum and the lowest parasite burden was recorded for T. serrata (9.1%). The sex of the euthanized dogs had a significant difference in the prevalence of GI helminthes in the two sexes (p<0.05). Female dogs (100%) were found to be more likely infected by gastrointestinal helminthes than male dogs (62.5%). From the whole gastrointestinal parasites, the highest and lowest mean worm burdens were seen for S. lupi (9.13) and T. serrata (1), respectively. Of these reported parasites some of them have public health importance but dogs harbouring the parasites are living freely and friendly with the public. Hence, there should be a practice of regularand appropriate stray dogs control and health management of owned dogs. In addition, further epidemiological studies should be conducted to investigate the rate of seasonal infection and the level of environmental contamination

Mass dog poisoning operation in Addis Ababa

Yilma D.A. 2013. Mass dog poisoning operation in Addis Ababa can have severe repercussions on vulture populations. Vulture News 64: 74–76

In Addis Ababa until April 2013 at least 12 000 stray dogs were poisoned, in relation to the potential and growing concern of the risk of rabies to society, and dumped unburied at the city dump.

Dog ecology and demography in Machakos District, Kenya

Kitala, P., McDermott, J., Kyule, M., Gathuma, J., Perry, B., & Wandeler, A. (2001). Dog ecology and demography information to support the planning of rabies control in Machakos District, Kenya. Acta Tropica, 78(3), 217-230.

A study of 150 dog-owning households from six randomly selected sublocations was conducted in Machakos District, Kenya. Initially, all households were visited to collect information on dog ecology and demography based on WHO guidelines and to collect serum for rabies antibody detection. A second visit was made 1 year later, to obtain follow-up data on births, deaths, dog movements and other events since the first visit. Dog ownership was common, with a range of 53–81% (mean=63%) of households owning dogs in the six sublocations. Dog density for the five more rural sublocations ranged from 6 to 21 dogs  km^-2 and for the peri-urban sublocation was 110 dogs  km^-2. The dog population was estimated to be growing at 9% p.a. (95% C.I. 4–14%). This growth was a function of very high fecundity (1.3 females per female per year) more than compensating for high mortality, particularly among females. Life expectancy from birth was 3.5 years for males and 2.4 years for females. Half the dogs at any one time were less than 1 year of age. All dogs, by design of the study, were owned. Of these, 69% were never restricted and roamed freely to forage for food and mix with other dogs. Only a small proportion of dogs (5%) were fed commercial dog food. Most households reported observing dogs scavenging their garbage, including: their own dogs (81%), their neighbours’ dogs (75%) and unknown dogs (45%). Only 29% of dogs at least 3 months of age were reported to be vaccinated against rabies. The proportion vaccinated varied widely between sublocations (5–68%); 48% of dogs reportedly vaccinated had detectable antibodies, 31% at or above levels considered to indicate seroconversion. The proportion of dogs with detectable antibodies declined according to the time since last vaccination (55% if vaccinated ≤1 year, 47% ≤2 years and 36% >2 years); 20% of dogs reported not to have been vaccinated had detectable rabies antibody. Compared to other dog populations in rural eastern and southern Africa, Machakos District has a high density of dogs. The Machakos dog population is growing, highly dynamic, poorly supervised and inadequately vaccinated against rabies. The main implication for rabies control is that adequate vaccination coverage is unlikely to be achieved, even under optimal delivery, using the current strategy of annual vaccination of dogs older than 3 months.

Dog meat consumption and rabies in Nigeria

Ekanem, E. E., Eyong, K. I., Philip-Ephraim, E. E., Eyong, M. E., Adams, E. B., & Asindi, A. A. (2014). Stray dog trade fuelled by dog meat consumption as a risk factor for rabies infection in Calabar, southern Nigeria. African Health Sciences, 13(4), 1170-1173.

Background: Rabies is a preventable zoonosis with the highest case fatality of any disease in the world. In the developing world, it is transmitted mainly by dog bites. In parts of southern Nigeria, dog meat is a delicacy.
Objective: To highlight trade in stray dogs as a major risk factor for rabies in animals and humans in south-south Nigeria.
Method: Patients admitted into the University of Calabar Teaching Hospital (UCTH) with a diagnosis of rabies between July and October 2012 were analysed for risk factors, post exposure prophylaxis (PEP), health seeking behaviour and outcome. Focused group interview were also conducted among traders/ handlers of stray dogs.
Results: Ten cases of rabies in subjects aged 3 to 52 years were recorded in these five months period. Eight of the cases were male and apparently got infected directly or indirectly through the trade in stray dogs for human consumption. None had proper PEP and all patients died.
Conclusion: Stray dog trade, fuelled by eating of dog meat, is a risk factor for human and animal rabies in Calabar, southern Nigeria. Culling of stray dogs, control of stray dogs’ trade and public enlightenment on PEP is recommended.

Odeh, L. E., Umoh, J. U., & Dzikwi, A. A. (2013). Assessment of Risk of Possible Exposure to Rabies among Processors and Consumers of Dog Meat in Zaria and Kafanchan, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Global journal of health science, 6(1), p142.

Canine rabies is endemic in Nigeria. Some of the dogs slaughtered for human consumption may be infected with rabies virus, thus exposing handlers of raw dog meat to the disease since the virus may be present in the nerves in the meat. A cross-sectional study was designed and a structured questionnaire was designed and administered to a convenience sample of 160 processors and consumers (100 from Zaria and 60 from Kafanchan), by face to face interview at the slaughter sites or dog meat sale points. The questionnaire sought information on demographic characteristics of the respondents, rabies knowledge, attitude and actions the respondents would take if exposure occurs. Associations between demographic variables and categorized knowledge, attitude or practice scores were assessed using X² analysis. The relationship between non-categorized scores was assessed using multiple regression analysis. Also, 154 brain samples from slaughtered dogs (74 from Zaria and 80 from Kafanchan) were checked for rabies antigen using direct fluorescent antibody test. Of the 160 respondents, 49 (30.6%) were involved in the slaughtering and sale of dog meat while 111(69.4%) were involved in handling and consumption of processed dog meat. Only 123(76.9%) knew that dogs are common source of rabies in Nigeria and 105(65.6%) knew that rabies affect humans. Also 110(68.8%) did not have adequate knowledge of the clinical signs of rabies. The level of knowledge, having positive attitudes and knowing acceptable practices were directly proportional to the level of education. Respondents from Kafanchan had higher level of knowledge and more positive attitudes towards rabies than those from Zaria. There were significant correlations between knowledge and attitude scores (r=0.49) and between knowledge and practice scores (r=0.43) at p<0.001. Rabies antigen was detected in the brain of 6 (3.9%) of the slaughtered dogs. The findings indicate that processors and consumers of dog meat are deficient in the knowledge of rabies. There is therefore a need for educational programmes targeted at this high risk group to increase their level of knowledge and reduce the risk of exposure.

Rabies antivirus in dogs in SW Nigeria

Oluwayelu, D. O., Adebiyi, A. I., & Ohore, O. G. (2015). A survey of rabies virus antibodies in confined, hunting and roaming dogs in Ogun and Oyo States, Southwestern Nigeria. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease, 5(1), 17-21.

Objective

To screen for rabies virus (RABV) antibodies in apparently healthy confined, hunting and roaming dogs by a community-based approach.

Methods

Sera from 230 (80 confined, 92 hunting and 58 roaming) dogs in some urban and peri-urban communities in Ogun and Oyo states, Southwestern Nigeria were screened for RABV antibodies using the indirect ELISA method.

Results

Analysis of administered questionnaires showed that of 80 confined dog owners, 37 were aware of anti-rabies vaccination (i.e. they were informed) while 17 were negligent and 26 uninformed. Of the 230 sera tested, only 13 (5.7%) from vaccinated confined dogs in Oyo state were positive (i.e. had optimal RABV antibody titres) (mean 0.54, 95% CI: 0.42–0.67) while all confined dog sera in Ogun state were negative. Eleven (12.0%) and 14 (24.1%) of the hunting and roaming dogs respectively had sub-optimal RABV antibody titres while the rest were negative.

Conclusions

Evidently, these groups of dogs are a totally unprotected and susceptible dog population that can serve as potential reservoirs of RABV in the study area. Responsible pet ownership, vaccination of hunting and roaming dogs, and community-based active rabies surveillance are therefore advocated in Nigeria.

Dog meat and rabies

Ajoke, E., Solomon, A., & Ikhide, E. (2014). The role of dog trading and slaughter for meat in rabies epidemiology with special reference to Nigeria-a review. Journal of Experimental Biology and Agricultural Sciences, 2(2), 130-136.

The aim of this review was to define the risk factors associated with dog trading and slaughtering for food in the transmission of rabies to human health in Nigeria. The review also examined the factors that increase the risk of transmission of the rabies virus and epidemiology in humans and preventive measures that may be taken. Emphasis was also laid on the potential role that the butchers play in rabies transmission and their susceptibility to rabies through contact with infectious meat samples and materials. Dog meat is gradually becoming a delicacy in many parts of Nigeria. It is eaten for various reasons including medicinal values, source of protein and ritual rites. Stray and apparently healthy dogs are transported together to the slaughter-houses for processing. Rabies virus have been confirmed in apparently, healthy dogs to be slaughtered showing that butchers are at risk, especially in Nigeria, where the butchers neither wear protective gears nor vaccinated against rabies. It is recommended that regular and mass vaccination of butchers and dogs should be carried out to ensure effective control and eradication of rabies. In conclusion, dog trading, slaughtering and consumption might play a major role in the epidemiology of rabies from dogs to humans in Nigeria.

Eliminating Rabies in Tanzania?

Bardosh, K., Sambo, M., Sikana, L., Hampson, K., & Welburn, S. C. (2014). Eliminating Rabies in Tanzania? Local Understandings and Responses to Mass Dog Vaccination in Kilombero and Ulanga Districts. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 8(6), e2935.

Background

With increased global attention to neglected diseases, there has been a resurgence of interest in eliminating rabies from developing countries through mass dog vaccination. Tanzania recently embarked on an ambitious programme to repeatedly vaccinate dogs in 28 districts. To understand community perceptions and responses to this programme, we conducted an anthropological study exploring the relationships between dogs, society, geography and project implementation in the districts of Kilombero and Ulanga, Southern Tanzania.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Over three months in 2012, we combined the use of focus groups, semi-structured interviews, a household questionnaire and a population-based survey. Willingness to participate in vaccination was mediated by fear of rabies, high medical treatment costs and the threat of dog culling, as well as broader notions of social responsibility. However, differences between town, rural and (agro-) pastoralist populations in livelihood patterns and dog ownership impacted coverage in ways that were not well incorporated into project planning. Coverage in six selected villages was estimated at 25%, well below official estimates. A variety of problems with campaign mobilisation, timing, the location of central points, equipment and staff, and project organisation created barriers to community compliance. Resource-limitations and institutional norms limited the ability for district staff to adapt implementation strategies.

Conclusions and Significance

In the shadows of resource and institutional limitations in the veterinary sector in Africa, top-down interventions for neglected zoonotic diseases likes rabies need to more explicitly engage with project organisation, capacity and community participation. Greater attention to navigating local realities in planning and implementation is essential to ensuring that rabies, and other neglected diseases, are controlled sustainably.

Author Summary

Mass vaccination of dogs is the most effective strategy to eliminate dog-mediated human rabies from developing countries. In 2009, a large-scale elimination demonstration project was funded and coordinated by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) in three southern countries, including the United Republic of Tanzania. This paper explores community perceptions and responses to this programme in the districts of Kilombero and Ulanga, Southern Tanzania. The study was based on focus groups and interviews in 16 villages as well as a household questionnaire (n = 113), a population-based survey (n = 6,157 households) and key informant interviews (n = 24). The study showed that fear of rabies, the threat of dog culling and broader ideas of community responsibility drove compliance. However differences in local livelihoods shaped dog ownership patterns and the distribution of dogs in ways that were not explicitly addressed by project strategies. A survey in six villages found that only 25% of dogs had been vaccinated in 2011. We discuss the operational constraints and problems that lowered coverage as viewed by different actors at the district and village-level. A more explicit engagement with project organisation, capacity and community involvement are needed to address this low coverage.

Dog bites and rabies in Nigeria

Nwokeukwu, H. (2014, August). Dog bites and public health intervention in a tertiary health institution, South Eastern Nigeria. In The 20th IEA World Congress of Epidemiology (17-21 August 2014, Anchorage, AK). WCE.

Introduction: Human dog-bite injuries are a major public health problem, particularly where there are large populations of free-roaming or street dogs. Dog bites are also the major source of human rabies infections. Since rabies fatality rate is about 100% it is important to look at the dog bites that can lead to it and a way of preventing such occurrence. Objective: To determine cases of dog bites and describe intervention taken after a rabid patient..

Methods: Dog bites cases where collected from immunization records from 2009 to 2013. The cases were then analyzed with excel and Epi –info. Unvariate analysis was carried out. The intervention given by public health team due to a rabid patient that died was described. The team went to the village of the rabid patient and conducted Health Education.

Results: The total numbers of Dog bites since in immunization clinic were 58 cases. Out of these males were 30(52%) and females were 28(48%). The children less than 18years were 31(54%) while the adults were 27(47%). The children 0-5years were 11(19%).However children the males 20(65%) and females 11 (35%) while among the adults the females 17(61%) were more than the males 10(39%)..The greatest number of dog bites 23(40%) was in 2013. The community with rabid patient, only the dog of the chief was immunized.

Conclusion and Recommendation: Recent increase of Dog bites in 2013 calls for urgent intervention. The dogs are not immunized there is need to get all the dogs immunized by their owners and get rid of stray dogs knowing the fatality of rabies.

Dog diseases threat Ethiopian wolf

Laurenson, K., Sillero‐Zubiri, C., Thompson, H., Shiferaw, F., Thirgood, S., & Malcolm, J. (1998). Disease as a threat to endangered species: Ethiopian wolves, domestic dogs and canine pathogens. Animal Conservation, 1(4), 273-280.

With increasing awareness of disease as an endangering process, an assessment of which pathogens might pose a problem and their patterns of infection in natural hosts is necessary. This paper examines the exposure of sympatric Ethiopian wolves (Canis simensis) and domestic dogs to canine distemper virus (CDV), canine adenovirus (CAV) and canine parvovirus (CPV) in the Bale region, Ethiopia and then relates these data to population trends of wolves. Wolves (n= 30) sampled between 1989 and 1992 had been exposed to CDV, CAV and CPV, but only CAV might be able to persist in this wolf population. Anecdotal and serological evidence suggested that an epidemic of CDV occurred in the dog population of the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) in 1992–93. All park dogs born since this time were seronegative to CDV, although some young dogs in the nearby urban population were seropositive. Despite evidence of CAV infection in wolves, none of the dogs sampled in the park were CAV seropositive, although this virus appeared highly seroprevalent and endemic in urban dogs. All dogs tested for CPV antibodies were seropositive. The BMNP wolf population declined in the late 1980s and early 1990s, with rabies responsible for a dramatic population reduction between 1990 and 1992. Although the population declined further up until 1995, it is not possible to assess whether the concurrent canine distemper epidemic in park dogs also affected wolves. Nevertheless, with evidence of rabies, CDV, CAV and CPV infections in sympatric domestic dogs and Ethiopian wolves, canid diseases clearly pose a significant threat to the future persistence of this Ethiopian wolf population.