The influence of socio-demographic factors on free-roaming cat populations in an urban ecosystem in Israel

Finkler H, Hatna E, Terkel J (2011). The influence of neighbourhood socio-demographic factors on densities of free-roaming cat populations in an urban ecosystem in Israel. Wildlife Research 38(3): 235-243.

Context: Free-roaming cat populations are abundant in many urban ecosystems worldwide. Their management is necessary for reasons of public health, risk of wildlife predation and cat welfare related to their high densities. Trap–neuter–return (TNR) programs are now the main cat population control strategy in urban areas. However, the efficacy of such strategies is difficult to evaluate without more precise estimates of cat numbers and a better knowledge of anthropogenic influences on cat densities.

Aims: We aimed to estimate free-roaming cat population numbers and density in residential neighbourhoods in Tel Aviv, and to investigate population densities in relation to several socio-demographic factors.

Methods: We compared free-roaming cat population densities in terms of neighbourhood socio-economic status (SES), housing type, human density and percentage of residential and commercial areas. Five consecutive cat density surveys were carried out in eight residential neighbourhoods in Israel – four in northern Tel Aviv, characterised by high SES, and four in southern Tel Aviv, characterised by low SES. The photographic capture–recapture technique was used and abundance estimates were evaluated using the MARK program. Regression analyses examined the effect of socio-demographic factors on cat densities.

Key results: Neighbourhood socio-economic status significantly influenced kitten density and proportion of neutered cats in the total population: southern neighbourhoods had higher kitten densities and lower neutered cat proportions compared with northern neighbourhoods. Higher adult cat densities featured in mixed profile neighbourhoods of residential and commercial areas compared with solely residential neighbourhoods. Using the linear equation from the regression analysis the entire free-roaming cat population in Tel Aviv was extrapolated to 39 000 cats.

Conclusions: The results suggest that adult cat and kitten densities depend in part on socio-demographic factors, specifically on neighbourhood socio-economic status and the proportion of residential area.

Implications: Our findings in Tel Aviv may be used to improve cat management efforts, by focusing on neighbourhoods hosting higher cat densities; as well as to improve cat welfare by focusing on neighbourhoods with lower neutering rates and higher kitten densities. Finally, the current study may serve as a basis for studies in other cities with similar cat overpopulation problems.

Cat predation on Middle East wildlife

Brickner-Braun, I., Geffen, E., & Yom-Tov, Y. (2007). The domestic cat as a predator of Israeli wildlife. Israel Journal of Ecology & Evolution, 53(2), 129-142.

Predation of wildlife by domestic cats was studied in Israel. Analysis of stomach contents and data provided by observers revealed that many domestic cats enriched the diet provided by their owners with many species of wild animals, including 12 mammals, 26 birds, 18 reptiles, and one amphibian, and scavenged from garbage. The proportion of manufactured cat food and garbage dump food in the diet of urban cats decreased from 70% of stomach volume among those living in rural settlements to 44% among cats living in open areas, with the rest of the stomach contents consisting of wild animals. Of the wild animals hunted by cats, the most common category was mammals (75% of the stomach volume), followed by amphibians (10%), birds (9%), and reptiles (6%).

Most cats do not wander more than 200 m away from either a food source or cover. Female cats living in (southern) desert settlements do not leave the inhabited area and have very small home ranges, while those living in the Mediterranean region (central and northern) wander outside under the cover of trees and bushes and have significantly larger home ranges. The mean distance traveled daily by females from their center of activity was 51.3 m and 103.4 m for the southern and northern populations, respectively. Males were studied only in the Mediterranean region, and their travel distances were greater than those of females.

Although our results of predation are mainly qualitative, this study supports those done elsewhere in the world where the cat was shown to be a generalist predator whose potential impact on some species, especially endangered ones, may be considerable.

Stray animal populations and public health in the South Mediterranean and Middle East

Seimenis, A., & Tabbaa, D. (2014). Stray animal populations and public health in the South Mediterranean and the Middle East regions. Veterinaria italiana,50(2), 131.

Uncontrolled urban growth in South Mediterranean and the Middle East regions involves city dwellers and stray animals (mainly dogs and cats) creating a dense and downgraded environment, in which irregular street garbage collection disposes sufficient food for survival and proliferation of stray animals. Under such conditions serious public health hazards are expected due to the increase of animal bites, the multiplication of insects and rodents vectors of different viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic agents to which humans are exposed. Traditional national stray animal eradication programs and occasional small animals' humane elimination campaigns are insufficient to avert human and veterinary health risks when not coupled with modern technologies. In such environments, multiple foci of emerging and re-emerging zoonoses easily spread, i.e. rabies, hydatidosis, leishmaniasis and toxoplasmosis. Upgrading urban and peri-urban situations requires integrated/coordinated management programmes, in which public and animal health services as well as municipalities have a crucial role. Control and upgrading programmes should be flexible and able to adapt to the specific conditions of the given country/region. In this context, intersectoral/interprofessional collaborations and community participation are crucial for any national and regional development strategies. In this respect, a global approach considering both public health and socio-economic problems shows to be extremely adequate and effective.

Low gene flow between wolves and dogs in Iran

Aghbolaghi, M. A., Rezaei, H. R., Scandura, M., & Kaboli, M. (2014). Low gene flow between Iranian Grey Wolves (Canis lupus) and dogs documented using uniparental genetic markers. Zoology in the Middle East, 60(2), 95-106.
Wolves have the ability to live in different habitats. However, in recent years, in many areas wolf populations have drastically declined and some of them have disappeared. A major concern in the management of wolf populations is the hybridization between wolves and dogs. In some regions, in order to generate strong breeds of guard dogs, wolves and dogs are intentionally hybridized. In this study, gene flow between wolves and dogs in Iran was examined, using a combination of uniparental markers: the mitochondrial DNA control region and four Y chromosome microsatellites. The species of origin of each haplotype was attributed by phylogenetic analyses. A very limited number of haplotypes was shared, suggesting limited gene flow between wolves and dogs in Iran. However, possible factors promoting hybridization are still present in the country and should not be neglected in the future management of the wild species.

See more about wild canid hybridisation with dogs

Spatial organisation of urban feral cats in Jerusalem

Mirmovitch, V. (1995). Spatial organisation of urban feral cats (Felis catus) in Jerusalem. Wildlife Research, 22(3), 299-310.

Feral cats were studied for 10 months in a residential area in Jerusalem and their spatial distribution compared during two 1-month periods, the first in the autumn prior to the mating season and the second during the mating season (winter). Cat locations were recorded by direct observations, and home-range sizes were calculated with the minimum convex polygon method. No significant change in home-range size of adult males or females was found between the 2 periods. Young males expanded their home ranges considerably during their first mating season. Home ranges of males were significantly larger than those of females in both periods (0.56 and 0.30 ha, respectively, in autumn; 0.75 and 0.27 ha in winter). The home ranges of both sexes overlapped considerably with individuals of the same sex. Overlap among home ranges of females indicated a group pattern. High overlap (80%) was found among females that fed from the same set of garbage bins with similar frequency. Lower overlap (20%) was found between individual females that shared only a subset of their food resources and used it with different frequency. It is suggested that the distribution of food patches (garbage bins), the amount of food available and the rate of food renewal determined the cats' spatial organisation.

Owners' attitude contribution to stray cat overpopulation

Finkler, H., & Terkel, J. (2012). The contribution of cat owners’ attitudes and behaviours to the free-roaming cat overpopulation in Tel Aviv, Israel. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 104(1), 125-135.


The attitudes and behaviours of cat owners in regard to treatment of cats may have a cumulative effect on the food availability, reproduction, density and welfare of the free-roaming cat population and thus also on the extent of cat overpopulation. Understanding this is thus a vital step in the a priori planning of cat management programs on any scale, as well as in developing public education programs on this issue. Although recent years have seen an accumulation of knowledge in regard to cat owners’ attitudes and behaviours, the findings vary among countries and locations and in Israel this has never been investigated systematically. Using a questionnaire provided to cat owners in veterinary clinics, this study aimed at identifying those attitudes and behaviours that may be contributing to cat overpopulation in Tel Aviv, Israel, and at exploring the socio-economic factors that influence this problem. The findings show that the influential factors can be predicted from the cat owners’ socio-economic status, mainly education and income, as well as gender and age. A consistency in those cat owner behaviours that contribute to cat overpopulation was also uncovered, revealing a sub-population of individuals who persist in the undesirable behaviours. Finally, a strong relationship between attitude and consequent behaviour was demonstrated, indicating the importance of education and targeted publicity as a means to influence attitudes and thereby change behaviours in this respect. We propose several measures by which to reduce the current extent of cat owners’ contribution to the cat overpopulation: discouraging unwanted owner behaviours such as abandonment of their cats and allowing them to breed; promoting awareness of the neutering option among cat caretakers; and increasing pre-adoption neutering rates in shelters. Regional and national laws promoting responsible pet ownership need to be enacted. By improving the current level of knowledge and awareness among cat owners regarding cat overpopulation issues, and encouraging a more responsible attitude, cat owners’ bond with their cats could be strengthened, as well as their bond with and contribution to their environment

Impact of feral cat and fox on Socrota cormorant on Siniya Island

Muzaffar, S. B., Benjamin, S., & Gubiani, R. E. (2013). The impact of fox and feral cat predation on the population viability of the threatened, endemic Socotra cormorant on Siniya Island, United Arab Emirates. Marine Ornithology, 41, 171-177.

Seabirds are vulnerable to a variety of threats occurring at breeding colonies, including disturbance, habitat degradation and predation from terrestrial predators. Socotra Cormorants Phalacrocorax nigrogularis are threatened, regionally endemic seabirds restricted to the Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Oman regions. Populations have been collapsing throughout their range, mostly in response to habitat loss from oil exploitation and disturbance at breeding sites. Almost half of the historically abundant colonies have disappeared, and the global breeding population has suffered catastrophic declines over the last 30 years. Siniya Island, Umm Al Quwain, hosts the largest colony in the United Arab Emirates with an estimated 15 500 breeding pairs. Predation by feral cats Felis catus and native red foxes Vulpes vulpes constitutes a major threat to this colony. We simulated population trends under different mortality levels using the software Vortex. The baseline model was parameterized using data on Socotra Cormorants or other cormorant species. Simulation of the baseline model showed a gradual increase in population, assuming carrying capacity of Siniya Island was 50 000 individuals. Compared with the baseline, within 50 years, a mortality of 900 individuals per year would reduce the population to fewer than 5 000 breeding pairs; mortality of 1 800 or 2 000 individuals per year would reduce the population to a few hundred pairs. Populations were more susceptible to adult mortality in all mortality scenarios (900, 1 800, and 2 000 individuals/year), leading to reductions to near-extinction levels. Our estimates of predation-related mortality were conservative, and the trends implied by the population model could potentially be catastrophic to the species. Eradication of feral cats and red foxes is recommended as a management tool to ensure long-term survival of this colony

Dogs likely originated in the Middle East

vonHoldt, B.M., J.P. Pollinger, K.E. Lohmueller, E. Han, H.G. Parker, P. Quignon, J.D. Degenhardt, A.R. Boyko, D.A. Earl, A. Auton, A. Reynolds, K. Bryc, A. Brisbin, J.C. Knowles, D.S. Mosher, T.C. Spady, A. Elkahloun, E.Geffen, M. Pilot, W. Jedrzejewski, C. Greco, E. Randi, D. Bannasch, A. Wilton, J. Shearman, M. Musiani, M. Cargill, P.G. Jones, Z. Qian, W. Huang, Z.L. Ding, Y.P. Zhang, C.D. Bustamante, E.A. Ostrander, J. Novembre & R. K. Wayne (2010). Genome-wide SNP and haplotype analyses reveal a rich history underlying dog domestication. Nature, 464(7290), 898-902.

Advances in genome technology have facilitated a new understanding of the historical and genetic processes crucial to rapid phenotypic evolution under domestication. To understand the process of dog diversification better, we conducted an extensive genome-wide survey of more than 48,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms in dogs and their wild progenitor, the grey wolf.

Here we show that dog breeds share a higher proportion of multi-locus haplotypes unique to grey wolves from the Middle East, indicating that they are a dominant source of genetic diversity for dogs rather than wolves from east Asia, as suggested by mitochondrial DNA sequence data. Furthermore, we find a surprising correspondence between genetic and phenotypic/functional breed groupings but there are exceptions that suggest phenotypic diversification depended in part on the repeated crossing of individuals with novel phenotypes. Our results show that Middle Eastern wolves were a critical source of genome diversity, although interbreeding with local wolf populations clearly occurred elsewhere in the early history of specific lineages. More recently, the evolution of modern dog breeds seems to have been an iterative process that drew on a limited genetic toolkit to create remarkable phenotypic diversity.

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The effect of design, and dogs, on bird species on urban parks

Paker, Y., Yom-Tov, Y., Alon-Mozes, T., & Barnea, A. (2013). The effect of plant richness and urban garden structure on bird species richness, diversity and community structure. Landscape and Urban Planning.

Urban green areas improve the standard of living in cities and affect people's attitude to nature and conservation. Zoological knowledge may provide data that will help designers to enhance bird diversity in gardens. We studied the effect of plant species richness and structure on bird species richness, diversity and community structure in 25 public gardens in Tel-Aviv city and, neighboring suburbs, Israel. A total of 65 bird species were observed, of which nine were urban, exploiters or alien species. These latter species composed 54% of all individuals seen. Additional 13 bird species, mostly migrants, were observed in gardens further from the observation fixed radius. We found that shrubs species richness positively affected bird species diversity. Most bird species were found where trees and shrubs species richness was high, and trees and lawn cover were medium or low. High trees or high lawn cover attracted only a few bird species, mostly aliens and urban exploiters. Native birds preferred to forage on native trees and alien birds preferred to feed on alien trees. Bird species diversity was higher during spring and fall because of the presence of migrating bird species. Dogs and people had a negative effect on bird presence. Accordingly, we recommend that when planning new gardens, designers will avoid large lawns, prefer diverse and dense shrubberies, native trees, and will create some areas that will not be accessible to dogs and people. Finally, we emphasize the importance of multidisciplinary studies conducted in collaboration between landscape designers and zoologists.

TNR useless if unsustained

Gunther, I., H. Finkler & J. Terkel. (2011) Demographic differences between urban feeding groups of neutered and sexually intact free-roaming cats following a trap-neuter-return procedure. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 238 (9): 1134-1140

Objective—To examine demographic differences during a 1-year observational period between urban feeding groups of neutered and unneutered free-roaming cats following a trap-neuter-return procedure.

Design—Natural-setting trial.

Animals—Free-roaming adult cats (n = 184) and kittens (76) living in 4 feeding groups in an urban region of Israel.

Procedures—Cats in 2 feeding groups were subjected to a trap-neuter-return (TNR) procedure. Cats in 2 other feeding groups were untreated. Data were collected on a weekly basis before and during feeding time over a 1-year period. Following individual cat identification, presence of adults and kittens was recorded throughout the year. Rates of immigration, emigration, and kitten survival were compared between neutered and unneutered groups.

Results—The number of adult cats in the 2 neutered groups increased significantly during the study period because of higher immigration and lower emigration rates than in the unneutered groups, in which the number decreased. In the neutered groups, annual presence of neutered cats was significantly higher than that of sexually intact cats. Kitten survival in the neutered groups was significantly higher than in the unneutered groups.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Targeting the TNR method mainly at feeding groups in urban residential neighbourhoods may result in increased group size, as a consequence of 2 major changes in group dynamics: sexually intact cats immigrate into the neutered groups more readily and neutered cats reduce their emigration rates, possibly because of a reduction in reproductive and competitive pressures. To maintain a high proportion of neutered cats in such cat groups, persistent TNR campaigns are therefore necessary.

Domestic dogs and SE European wolves

Verginelli, F., Capelli, C., Coia, V., Musiani, M., Falchetti, M., Ottini, L., Palmirotta, R., Tagliacozzo, A., de Grossi Mazzorin, I. & Mariani-Costantini, R. (2005). Mitochondrial DNA from prehistoric canids highlights relationships between dogs and South-East European wolves.Molecular biology and evolution, 22(12), 2541-2551.

The question of the origins of the dog has been much debated. The dog is descended from the wolf that at the end of the last glaciation (the archaeologically hypothesized period of dog domestication) was one of the most widespread among Holarctic mammals. Scenarios provided by genetic studies range from multiple dog-founding events to a single origin in East Asia.
 The earliest fossil dogs, dated ≈17–12,000 radiocarbon (¹⁴C) years ago (YA), were found in Europe and in the Middle East. Ancient DNA (a-DNA) evidence could contribute to the identification of dog-founder wolf populations. To gain insight into the relationships between ancient European wolves and dogs we analyzed a 262-bp mitochondrial DNA control region fragment retrieved from five prehistoric Italian canids ranging in age from ≈15,000 to ≈3,000 ¹⁴C YA. These canids were compared to a worldwide sample of 547 purebred dogs and 341 wolves. The ancient sequences were highly diverse and joined the three major clades of extant dog sequences. Phylogenetic investigations highlighted relationships between the ancient sequences and geographically widespread extant dog matrilines and between the ancient sequences and extant wolf matrilines of mainly East European origin. The results provide a-DNA support for the involvement of European wolves in the origins of the three major dog clades. Genetic data also suggest multiple independent domestication events. East European wolves may still reflect the genetic variation of ancient dog-founder populations.

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Impact of dogs on gazelle kids

Manor, R., & Saltz, D. (2004). The impact of free-roaming dogs on gazelle kid/female ratio in a fragmented area. Biological Conservation, 119(2), 231-236.

One of the consequences of fragmentation is a combination of increased proximity to human dominated areas and an influx of free-roaming dogs. In fragmented habitats those dogs are expected to have a considerable impact on ungulate populations since conditions are, in effect, similar to alien species on islands.

 We studied the impact of free-roaming dogs (Canis familiaris) on the kid/mother ratio of mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella gazella) in an isolated area heavily disturbed by human activity. We used the kid/female ratio as an index of recruitment in the gazelle populations and evaluated the impacts of dog presence, intensity of human disturbance, and forage and cover availability on this ratio over space and time. Data were collected from direct observations. Overall, kid/female ratio in the area is too low for population growth; a finding that is in agreement with drive counts indicating a consistent decline over the past four years (1998–2001). Our results show that free-roaming dogs were the overwhelming factor affecting kid/female ratio in this area. Gazelles responded positively and quickly to dog culling. Thus, free-roaming dogs appear to be a considerable threat to the gazelle population in the study area. Removal of those dogs on a regular basis is an adequate short-term management protocol for increasing gazelle recruitment rate. However, a permanent solution would require reducing the number of dogs by limiting human waste disposal. These results suggest that, in addition to the loss of habitat and connectivity, free-roaming dogs can be a major threat to native ungulates in human dominated fragmented landscapes.

Effect of guard dogs on gazelles

Gingold, G., Yom‐Tov, Y., Kronfeld‐Schor, N., & Geffen, E. (2009). Effect of guard dogs on the behavior and reproduction of gazelles in cattle enclosures on the Golan Heights. Animal Conservation, 12(2), 155-162.

Cattle on the Golan Heights are kept in enclosures and some of these enclosures have guard dogs. We studied the effect of such dogs on the behavior and breeding success of mountain gazelles Gazella gazella living within enclosures. We found that guard dogs have both direct and indirect effects on gazelles. Gazelles living in enclosures with dogs spent more time in vigilance behavior and running, and less time resting and walking, in comparison with gazelles in dog-free enclosures. In the absence of dogs, gazelle female herds in enclosures tended to stay closer to the cattle, but shunned away from them in the presence of the dogs, which, in turn, remained near the cattle. The percentage of fawns per female was higher in enclosures without dogs in comparison with those with dogs, but the difference was not significant. However, the largest of the enclosures with dogs, which had the largest number of gazelles, had only an average number of dogs in it. Hence, the gazelles in this enclosure were better able to avoid the dogs in comparison with those in smaller enclosures. Removing this enclosure from the overall calculation revealed that guard dogs have a significant negative effect on gazelle reproductive success. In two of the four enclosures with dogs no fawn still survived 6 months after birth, while in each of the four enclosures without dogs some fawns did survive to that age and beyond, suggesting that the dogs themselves may predate the fawns.

Another review on dog's impacts on wildlife

Brickner, I. 2003. The impact of domestic dog (Canis familiaris) on  wildlife welfare and conservation: a literature review with a situation summary from Israel. Tel Aviv University report.

Reviews dozens of articles on dog's impact on wildlife. After discussing domestication and marooning of dogs, the author reviews behaviour, ecology and predation around the world. The document also discusses hybridization problems and diseases transmition, to wildlife and to humans. It also gives some data on domestic and feral dogs in Israel.

See more about wild canid hybridisation with dogs

One more review on cat's impacts on wildlife

Brickner, I. 2003. The impact of domestic cat (Felis catus) on wildlife welfare and conservation: a literature review with a situation summary from Israel. Tel Aviv University report.

Reviews dozens of articles on cat impact on wildlife. After discussin the role of domestic cats as predators, the author reviews predation impact and choice of preys around the world, as well as the indirect impact of predation by domestic cats. The document also discusses hybridization problems, diseases transmition, to wildlife and to humans. There's also a review of spatial and social organisation and demographic parameters of domestic cats. The last chapters discuss moral issues and management measures.