Archeozoology of dogs in fort-village complex at Vindolanda in northern England

Bennett, D., Campbell, G., & Timm, R. M. (2016). The dogs of Roman Vindolanda: Morphometric techniques in differentiating domestic and wild canids. Archaeofauna 25: 79-106

 The Roman-era fort-village complex at Vindolanda in northern England, occupied from about A.D. 50 to A.D. 415, has yielded extensive well-preserved remains of the domestic dog, Canis familiaris. Herein, utilizing a novel combination of biostatistical techniques to identify parameters that best differentiate canids, we test the hypothesis that the inhabitants of Vindolanda selectively bred dogs. We also differentiate dog remains from wolves and foxes, similarly-sized canids that occur throughout Eurasia. The Vindolanda dogs are less morphologically diverse than modern dogs but much more diverse than dogs of the British Neolithic and Iron Age. They are as morphologically diverse as dogs excavated from other Romano–British sites, and only slightly less diverse than the whole known population of Roman-era dogs sampled from across Europe and North Africa. Vindolanda dogs thus underwent greater directional selection than expected from natural environmental forces, suggesting that selective breeding rather than random panmixis maintained diversity. The Vindolanda dog sample will make an ideal subject for DNA analysis, since it contains dogs undergoing incipient diversification from dingo-like ancestors.

Bennett, D., & Timm, R. M. (2016). The dogs of Roman Vindolanda, Part II: Time-stratigraphic occurrence, ethnographic comparisons, and biotype reconstruction. Archaeofauna 25:  107-126

The Roman fort-village complex at Vindolanda in northern England has yielded extensive well-preserved remains of domestic dogs, Canis familiaris. Herein, we pose the questions—did the Romans breed for distinctive dog morphotypes, or were dogs breeding panmictically; and if dogs were bred, was it for functionality.

Biotype reconstructions of the eight dog morphotypes known from Roman Vindolanda

We address these questions utilizing remains that are correlated to age and context; morphometric analysis; dental wear stage; bone pathology; pawprints impressed in tiles, and contemporary written records and artwork. All age classes of dogs are represented. There is no evidence that dogs were butchered for food; survivorship curves suggest the typical U-shaped distribution found in populations at equilibrium. Small, medium-sized, and large dogs are represented with frequency changing over time and corresponding to change in the region of origin of the resident military cohort. Husbandry is confirmed on an individual with healed wounds and with the discovery of a beehive-shaped wattle doghouse. Dogs were used extensively in hunting wild game and bred for that activity. By integrating many diverse kinds of data we are able reconstruct biotypes of Roman dogs, greatly facilitating the interpretation of their functionality.

An international comparison of the attitudes of urban people regarding predation by pet cats

Hall, C. M., Adams, N. A., Bradley, J. S., Bryant, K. A., Davis, A. A., Dickman, C. R., ... & Pollock, K. H. (2016). Community Attitudes and Practices of Urban Residents Regarding Predation by Pet Cats on Wildlife: An International Comparison. PLoS One, 11(4), e0151962.

International differences in practices and attitudes regarding pet cats' interactions with wildlife were assessed by surveying citizens from at least two cities in Australia, New Zealand, the UK, the USA, China and Japan. Predictions tested were: (i) cat owners would agree less than non-cat owners that cats might threaten wildlife, (ii) cat owners value wildlife less than non-cat owners, (iii) cat owners are less accepting of cat legislation/restrictions than non-owners, and (iv) respondents from regions with high endemic biodiversity (Australia, New Zealand, China and the USA state of Hawaii) would be most concerned about pet cats threatening wildlife. Everywhere non-owners were more likely than owners to agree that pet cats killing wildlife were a problem in cities, towns and rural areas.

Cat husbandry practices in different countries. (a) Percentage of households that own one, two or more than two cats (b) Percentage of cats kept in different conditions of confinement (c) Percentage of desexed cats. (d) Percentage of cats that have ever caught vertebrate prey.

Agreement amongst non-owners was highest in Australia (95%) and New Zealand (78%) and lowest in the UK (38%). Irrespective of ownership, over 85% of respondents from all countries except China (65%) valued wildlife in cities, towns and rural areas. Non-owners advocated cat legislation more strongly than owners except in Japan. Australian non-owners were the most supportive (88%), followed by Chinese non-owners (80%) and Japanese owners (79.5%). The UK was least supportive (non-owners 43%, owners 25%). Many Australian (62%), New Zealand (51%) and Chinese owners (42%) agreed that pet cats killing wildlife in cities, towns and rural areas was a problem, while Hawaiian owners were similar to the mainland USA (20%).

Percentage agreement of cat owners (dark blue) and non-owners (light blue) in each country to eight survey items: (a) There is a need for cat legislation (b) All cats should be kept in at night time (c) Cats should be kept on their owner's property at all times (d) It is important to have wildlife in cities, towns and rural areas (e) Pet cats killing wildlife in cities, towns and rural areas is a serious problem (f) Pet cats on farms are harmful to wildlife (g) Pet cats in nature reserves are harmful to wildlife (h) Except for a cat owned by a breeder, all cats should be desexed.

Thus high endemic biodiversity might contribute to attitudes in some, but not all, countries. Husbandry practices varied internationally, with predation highest where fewer cats were confined. Although the risk of wildlife population declines caused by pet cats justifies precautionary action, campaigns based on wildlife protection are unlikely to succeed outside Australia or New Zealand. Restrictions on roaming protect wildlife and benefit cat welfare, so welfare is a better rationale.

Legal Status of Wildcats and their hybrids

HERITAGE, S. N. 2015. Legal Status of Wildcats and their hybrids.

This paper highlights new research into levels of hybridisation in wild-living cats in Scotland.
It describes the methods being used to select wildcats suitable for conservation breeding
and how we plan to distinguish wildcats from feral cats and hybrids in the field and for the
trap, neuter, vaccinate and release (TNVR) programme under Scottish Wildcat Action. It
recognises that most wild-living and captive ‘wildcats’ appear to have some domestic
ancestry and that this poses challenges for their legal protection.

Cat owners' perception of their cats' impacts on wildlife

McDonald, J. L., Maclean, M., Evans, M. R., & Hodgson, D. J. (2015). Reconciling actual and perceived rates of predation by domestic cats. Ecology and Evolution.

The predation of wildlife by domestic cats (Felis catus) is a complex problem: Cats are popular companion animals in modern society but are also acknowledged predators of birds, herpetofauna, invertebrates, and small mammals. A comprehensive understanding of this conservation issue demands an understanding of both the ecological consequence of owning a domestic cat and the attitudes of cat owners. Here, we determine whether cat owners are aware of the predatory behavior of their cats, using data collected from 86 cats in two UK villages. We examine whether the amount of prey their cat returns influences the attitudes of 45 cat owners toward the broader issue of domestic cat predation. We also contribute to the wider understanding of physiological, spatial, and behavioral drivers of prey returns among cats. We find an association between actual prey returns and owner predictions at the coarse scale of predatory/nonpredatory behavior, but no correlation between the observed and predicted prey-return rates among predatory cats. Cat owners generally disagreed with the statement that cats are harmful to wildlife, and disfavored all mitigation options apart from neutering. These attitudes were uncorrelated with the predatory behavior of their cats. Cat owners failed to perceive the magnitude of their cats' impacts on wildlife and were not influenced by ecological information. Management options for the mitigation of cat predation appear unlikely to work if they focus on “predation awareness” campaigns or restrictions of cat freedom.

Reasons for relinquishment and return of domestic cats to rescue shelters

Casey, R. A., Vandenbussche, S., Bradshaw, J. W., & Roberts, M. A. (2009). Reasons for relinquishment and return of domestic cats (Felis silvestris catus) to rescue shelters in the UK. Anthrozoos: A Multidisciplinary Journal of The Interactions of People & Animals, 22(4), 347-358.

Significant numbers of cats enter rescue and re-homing facilities each year, over half of which are relinquished directly by owners. Identifying the reasons why owners decide to give up their pet is an important step in the development of education strategies to encourage retention of cats by their owners. In addition, identifying why adopting owners fail to retain their new cats is important in the refinement of homing policies. Characteristics of 6,089 cats relinquished and returned to 11 rescue facilities in the UK were recorded over a year. In addition, information was collected on the reason why owners gave up, or brought back, their pet. Sixty percent of cats and kittens entering shelters were relinquished by owners, with 19% being due to owner circumstances, such as moving to rented accommodation or changes in family circumstances. Seven percent were for behavioral reasons, and 5% because of the occurrence of allergy or asthma in owners. Returned cats were significantly more likely to be older (Mann Whitney U, Z = –9.167, p < 0.001) and neutered (Pearson χ² = 110.0, df = 2, p < 0.001) than the general relinquished population. The reasons for original relinquishment and return of owned cats were also significantly different (Pearson χ² = 84.4, df = 6, p < 0.001), with 38% of cats being returned for behavioral reasons, and 18% because of allergy or asthma. The commonest behavioral reason for both relinquishment and return was aggression between cats in the household.

Domestic cat range in an urban environment

Thomas, R. L., Baker, P. J., & Fellowes, M. D. (2014). Ranging characteristics of the domestic cat (Felis catus) in an urban environment. Urban Ecosystems, 1-11.

In many countries, high densities of domestic cats (Felis catus) are found in urban habitats where they have the potential to exert considerable predation pressure on their prey. However, little is known of the ranging behaviour of cats in the UK. Twenty cats in suburban Reading, UK, were fitted with GPS trackers to quantify movement patterns. Cats were monitored during the summer and winter for an average of 6.8 24 h periods per season. Mean daily area ranged (95 % MCP) was 1.94 ha. Including all fixes, mean maximum area ranged was 6.88 ha. These are broadly comparable to those observed in urban areas in other countries. Daily area ranged was not affected by the cat’s sex or the season, but was significantly larger at night than during the day. There was no relationship between area ranged and habitat availability. Taking available habitat into account, cat ranging area contained significantly more garden and other green space than urban habitats. If cats were shown to be negatively affecting prey populations, one mitigation option for consideration in housing developments proposed near important wildlife sites would be to incorporate a ‘buffer zone’ in which cat ownership was not permitted. Absolute maximum daily area ranged by a cat in this study was 33.78 ha. This would correspond to an exclusory limit of approximately 300–400 m to minimise the negative effects of cat predation, but this may need to be larger if cat ranging behaviour is negatively affected by population density.

Cats and habitat fragmentation affecting distribution of small mammals

Baker, P. J., Ansell, R. J., Dodds, P. A., Webber, C. E., & Harris, S. (2003). Factors affecting the distribution of small mammals in an urban area. Mammal review, 33(1), 95-100.


We investigated the distribution of a range of small mammal species in five urban habitats in north-west Bristol: residential gardens, woodlands, allotment gardens, scrub and a cemetery. Wood mouse Apodemus sylvaticus abundance in residential gardens was negatively related to the abundance of cats and the distance to the nearest patch of natural or seminatural vegetation. These results suggest that urban small mammal populations may be limited by predation and habitat fragmentation, although the effects of the latter may be offset by the availability of good quality gardens

Genetics of a dockyard cat population

Dards, J. L., & Robinson, R. (1983). Gene frequencies in a population of feral cats in Portsmouth naval Dockyard. Theoretical and Applied Genetics, 64(3), 197-204.

The free-living or feral cats of Portsmouth Dockyard were examined for the frequency of six mutant colour and coat genes. With the exception of one mutant, they were found to differ from the values to be expected for Southern England cat populations. The differences observed may have resulted from selection in the isolated environment (to produce a unique gene profile in terms of frequencies) or from a founder effect. If the latter, the observed frequencies could represent a relict population reflecting the frequencies of the town of Portsmouth before the dockyard was totally enclosed by a high wall. Some evidence of selection related to coat colour was found.

The behaviour of dockyard cats

Dards, J. L. (1983). The behaviour of dockyard cats: Interactions of adult males.Applied Animal Ethology, 10(1), 133-153.

A study was conducted on the feral cats living in Portsmouth Naval dockyard, an enclosed site with an area of less than 100 ha, supporting a population of about 200 adult cats. Data were collected by direct observation, and individuals were recognized primarily by coat pattern. The behaviour of mature tom-cats was observed with respect to females and to other mature males. Most toms visited several groups of females, but the frequency with which a particular group was visited varied between toms. Some toms spent most of their time with one group, adopting a role similar to that of a “pride lion”. The courtship and mating behaviour observed in the dockyard conformed with that recorded for laboratory cats. However, females in oestrus were not heard to call, but toms which were apparently seeking oestrus females emitted a characteristic cry. Up to 6 toms were observed in attendance on unreceptive oestrus females. Sexual behaviour was observed in most months, with peaks in the spring and autumn. Most of the aggressive interactions observed between toms and females were initiated by unreceptive females during courtship. Male aggression towards females was rare. Amicable behaviour was shown, and was more frequently initiated by females than by toms. Females appeared to interact amicably more frequently with toms with which they were familiar. No amicable behaviour between mature toms was observed. Interactions were characterised by aggression, tolerance or avoidance. Agonistic encounters were mainly ritualised, and few fights were observed. It is possible that a dominance hierarchy existed between toms, formed by fights when young toms first became sexually mature.

Bird assemblage and cat density

Victoria Sims, Karl L. Evans, Stuart E. Newson, Jamie A. Tratalos and Kevin J. Gaston. 2008.  Avian assemblage structure and domestic cat densities in urban environments. Diversity and Distributions, 14, 387–399

While there is intense debate regarding the impact of domestic cat populations on wildlife, its resolution is hindered by the lack of quite basic information. Domestic cats are generalist and obligate predators that receive supplementary food, and their population density reflects that of humans more than the density of their prey. In such a predator–prey system there is the potential for cat populations to have negative impacts on avian assemblages, which may be indicated by negative correlations between cat density and avian species richness and density. Here we report on the nature of such correlations across urban areas in Britain both for groups of species classified regarding their vulnerability to cat predation and individual species.
Taking the availability of green space into account, we find negative relationships between cat densities and the number of bird species breeding in urban 1 km × 1 km squares. These relationships are particularly strong among groups of species that are vulnerable to cat predation. We find positive correlations between cat and avian densities; these have low explanatory power and shallow slopes among the species groups that are particularly vulnerable to cat predation. Evidence that the densities of individual species that are vulnerable to cat predation are negatively correlated with cat densities is equivocal, with at least half the species showing no marked pattern, and the remainder exhibiting contrasting patterns. Our results appear not to be confounded by the density of nest-predating corvids (carrion crow, magpie, and jay), as the density of these species was not strongly negatively correlated with avian species richness or density. The general lack of marked negative correlations between cat and avian densities at our focal spatial scale may be a consequence of consistently high cat densities in our study areas (minimum density is 132 cats per square kilometre), and thus uniformly high impacts of cat populations on urban avian assemblages.

Interbreeding of feral and wild cats in Britain

Hubbard, A.L., S. McOrist, T.W. Jones, R. Boid, R. Scott & N. Easterbee. 1992. Is survival of European wildcats Felis silvestris in Britain threatened by interbreeding with domestic cats? Biological Conservation, 61: 203-208.

The relationship of the domestic cat Felis catus in Britain to the European wildcat Felis silvestris remaining in northern Britain includes a significant overlap of the phenotypic features of introgressive hybrids. The status of wildcats as a separate endangered species requiring protection to remain viable in the wild required analysis of their genetic relationship to domestic cats. Despite the discovery of free-living cats with both phenotypic resemblance to F. silvestris and close genetic similarities to F. catus, as measured by nucleic acid probe analysis, albumin heterogeneity (immunological distance) and isoenzyme analysis, eight of 42 putative wildcats caught in remote areas of northern and western Scotland showed clear differences from F. catus in the genetic analyses used. These eight wildcats had pelages consistent with the wildcat; however, 15 of the remaining cats had pelages containing domestic cat characters and had either one or no wildcat genetic character. The results suggest that some genetically distinct European wildcats remain in Britain, and the efforts to prevent interbreeding with domestic cats may enhance their conservation.

See more on domestic cat introgression in wildcat

Unwanted kittens and misinformed owners

Welsh, C. P., Gruffydd-Jones, T. J., Roberts, M. A., & Murray, J. K. (2013). Poor owner knowledge of feline reproduction contributes to the high proportion of accidental litters born to UK pet cats. Veterinary Record, vetrec-2013.

‘Accidental’ litters contribute to population growth and the number of unwanted animals entering animal welfare organisations. Assessing the problem's extent and determining risk factors enables identification of education targets. Data were obtained from 715 cat-owning households in a cross-sectional telephone survey. Demographic and lifestyle factors were assessed for their association with accidental litters and with owner knowledge of cat reproduction. A total of 128 litters were reported from 552 female cats, and the proportion of accidental litters reported by owners was 80 per cent. Multivariable analysis identified that respondents were more likely to report an accidental litter of kittens if they believed a female cat should have a litter prior to being neutered, if they had more than one cat and if they rented rather than owned their home. Misconceptions relating to cat reproduction were common. The opinion that the youngest age a cat could get pregnant was five months of age (or older) was held by 83.5 per cent of cat-owning respondents, with over a quarter (26.4 per cent; 174/659) believing a queen is unable to conceive until at least a year of age. Almost half the respondents (49.0 per cent; 334/682) believed a female cat should have a litter before being neutered or were not sure; 38.8 per cent (264/681) thought that un-neutered, related cats would not mate or were not sure. This study suggests that improving cat-owner knowledge of the reproductive capacity of cats is likely to have a significant impact on the numbers of accidental litters born.

"Cats kill an extraordinarily high number of birds in British gardens"

Cats killing huge numbers of British birds, Sir David Attenborough warns

The Guardian

Public prefer keeping dogs in kennels than euthanasia

Siettou, C., Fraser, I., & Fraser, R. (2013). A Choice Experiment Analysis of the Management of the Stray Dog Population in the UK. Agricultural Economics Society>87th Annual Conference, April 8-10, 2013, Warwick University, Coventry, UK

In this paper we present the results of a pilot study investigating the public’s view on the pet overpopulation problem. The Choice Experiment aims to understand the UK public’s awareness of the issue, its views and its willingness to participate and pay for a reduction in the rate of animals being “put to sleep”. Our preliminary results indicate that the public are willing to pay to keep healthy stray dogs alive for longer in Local Authority kennels beyond the current seven day statutory period.

Bells and electronic sonic device reducing predation by cats in UK

Nelson, S. H., Evans, A. D., & Bradbury, R. B. (2005). The efficacy of collar-mounted devices in reducing the rate of predation of wildlife by domestic cats. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 94(3), 273-285.

Volunteer cat owners from across the UK were recruited to take part in two trials designed to test the efficacy of collar-mounted warning devices in reducing cat predation rates of native wildlife. Cats equipped with a bell returned 34% fewer mammals and 41% fewer birds than those with a plain collar. Those equipped with an electronic sonic device returned 38% fewer mammals and 51% fewer birds compared with cats wearing a plain collar. There was no significant difference in prey return rates by cats wearing collars equipped with one bell, two bells or the sonic device. Warning devices mounted on quick-release collars are recommended as an effective way of reducing wildlife kill rates by domestic cats. Future research and development aimed at further improving the efficacy of sonic devices is recommended.

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You can see early reports of CatAlert device here

Clark, N. A. & N.H.K. Burton (1998). A pilot field trial into the effectiveness of the CatAlert™ collar at reducing predation by domestic cats. British Trust for Ornithology.

Clark, N. A. (1999). Progress report on the effectiveness of the Mark II CatAlert™ collar at reducing predation by domestic cats. British Trust for Ornithology.

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Read a short review about belling effectiveness

Up to 31% of recoveries of banded birds killed by cats

Mead, C. J. (1982). Ringed birds killed by cats. Mammal Review, 12(4), 183-186.

Mead examined the fate of banded birds in Britain and discovered that for six species more than 25 percent of the recoveries were of birds caught by cats. He ascribed 31% of recoveries of ringed robins and dunnocks to cat predation, but believed that there was no evidence that cats affected the overall populations of these species. Catchability is very different in different species, depending on gregarious habits, terrestrial feeding, avoidance of potential hiding places, etc. but some cats are even able to catch aerial species.
He emphasised that birds in rural and suburban parts of Britain have co-existed with cats for hundreds of generations and may now be under less pressure from cats than they were in the past from assorted 'natural' predators.

Bells reduce by half predation by cats

Ruxton, G. D., Thomas, S., & Wright, J. W. (2002). Bells reduce predation of wildlife by domestic cats (Felis catus). Journal of Zoology, 256(1), 81-83.

Twenty-one cat owners from a 100 km²  area, centred on Carnforth, Lancashire, England, recorded each dead prey item delivered by their cat or cats during an 8-week period, following one of three experimental schedules, each of which required each cat to have a bell on a collar for only half of the time. The mean number of items each cat delivered to the owner was 2.9 in the 4 weeks when the cats had a bell attached, compared to 5.5 for the equivalent time when the bell was absent. The bell had no effect on the relative numbers of different prey types delivered, and there was no evidence that the cats adapted their hunting behaviour to reduce the effect of the bell over time.


Read a short review about belling effectiveness

Feral cat in UK

From GWCT

Legislation

Protection of Wild Mammals (Scotland) Act 2002
Animal Welfare Act 2006
Welfare of Animals Act Northern Ireland 2011
Wild Mammals (Protection) Act 1996 
Hunting Act 2004
Animal Health and Welfare (Scotland) Act 2006
Wildlife and Natural Environment (Scotland) Act 2011

Distribution and abundance

Feral cats are most conspicuous in areas of urban development, but also occur widely in the countryside. They have been introduced to many offshore islands to control rats and rabbits. The scarcity of mapped records outside urban areas probably reflects the difficulty in separating feral from dependent domestic cats.

Estimates of feral cat abundance (numbers of individuals in the spring) across the UK, from Harriset al. (1995):

United Kingdom	813,000
England	625,000
Scotland	130,000
Wales	58,000
N Ireland	no estimate

Recent trends from the National Gamebag Census

Is predation by free-ranging pet cats likely to affect urban bird populations?

Baker, P.J., S.E. Molony, E. Stone, I.C. Cuthill, & S. Harris. 2008. Cats about town: is predation by free-ranging pet cats Felis catus likely to affect urban bird populations? Ibis 150: 86-99.

Even though they are fed daily by their owners, free-ranging pet cats Felis catus may kill wild birds and, given their high densities (typically > 200 cats/km²), it has been postulated that cat predation could be a significant negative factor affecting the dynamics of urban bird populations. In this study, we: (1) used questionnaire surveys in 10 sites within the city of Bristol, UK, to estimate cat density; (2) estimated the number of birds killed annually in five sites by asking cat owners to record prey animals returned home; and then (3) compared the number of birds killed with breeding density and productivity to estimate the potential impact of cat predation. In addition, we (4) compared the condition of those birds killed by cats versus those killed in collisions, e.g. window strikes. Mean (+/- sd) cat density was 348 +/- 86 cats/km²(n = 10 sites); considering the eight species most commonly taken by cats, the mean ratios of adult birds/cats and juvenile birds/cats across the five sites were 1.17 +/- 0.23 and 3.07 +/- 0.74, respectively. Approximately 60% of the cats studied for up to 1 year at each site never returned any prey home; despite this, the estimated number of birds killed was large relative to their breeding density and productivity in many sites. Across species, cat-killed birds were in significantly poorer condition than those killed following collisions; this is consistent with the notion that cat predation represents a compensatory rather than additive form of mortality. Interpretation of these results is, however, complicated by patterns of body mass regulation in passerines. The predation rates estimated in this study would suggest that cats were likely to have been a major cause of mortality for some species of birds. The effect of cat predation in urban landscapes therefore warrants further investigation. The potential limitations of the current study are discussed, along with suggestions for resolving them.

Predation by domestic cat in a British village

Churcher , P.B. & J.H. Lawton. 1987. Predation by domestic cats in an English (UK) village. Journal of Zoology. (London.) 212: 439-455

We studied predation by approximately 70 domestic cats (Felis catus L.) in the Bedfordshire village of Felmersham over a one-year period. All the prey items brought home by virtually all the cats in the village were recorded and, where possible, identified. A total of 1090 prey items (53i5 mammals, 297 birds and 258 unidentified animals) were taken, an average of about 14 per cat per year. Twenty two species of birds and 15 species of mammals were identified. The most important items were woodmice (17%), house sparrows (16%) and bank voles (14%).

Old cats of both sexes caught fewer prey over the year than young cats. Female cats on the edge of the village also caught more prey than female cats in intermediate or central areas of the village; male cats showed no such effect. The type of prey caught also varied with position in the village; ‘core’ cats caught proportionately more birds than ‘edge’ cats. There was some indication in the data that cats caught fewer prey in areas where cat density was highest, but this effect was impossible to disentangle from position in the village. Weather apparently influenced hunting success. Temperature had no direct influence, but fewer prey were caught in winter; cats also caught less on wet days and windy days.

Estimates of the number of house sparrows in the village at the start of the breeding season, and the number of sparrows known to have been caught by the cats, suggest that at least 30% of the sparrow deaths in the village were due to cats. Domestic cats would appear to be major predators in this typical English village.